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From the collected data of the Central Register of Vehicles, an average of 15,000 vehicles were registered per month in the Greater Poland region in 2020–2022. It should be borne in mind that most of them were conventionally powered cars-spark-ignition or compression-ignition engines, the daily operation of which negatively affects the environment. Institutions responsible for regulating the homologation of passenger vehicles are introducing increasingly stringent emission standards to reduce the harmful effects of vehicles on the environment. In addition, more and more public campaigns are being conducted on the use of cars equipped with alternative propulsion systems, e.g., electric, full-hybrid or increasingly popular hydrogen-powered vehicles. The publication presents forecasts for the replacement of vehicles equipped with spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines with cars equipped with hybrid propulsion systems or electric systems. Tests of vehicles in real operating conditions were carried out in the Poznań agglomeration in an urban area, where the number of vehicles per area is higher than in the case of a nonurban zone. The research objects were both cars equipped with a conventional drivetrain and a hybrid system. The research made it possible to draw up a hybridization index, which was then applied to the number of vehicles registered over the past few years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to increasing environmental demands, modeling emissions from older vehicles presents a significant challenge. This paper introduces an innovative methodology that takes advantage of advanced AI and machine learning techniques to develop precise emission models for older vehicles. This study analyzed data from road tests and the OBDII diagnostic interface, focusing on CO2, CO, THC, and NOx emissions under both cold and warm engine conditions. The key results showed that random forest regression provided the best predictions for THC in a cold engine (R2: 0.76), while polynomial regression excelled for CO2 (R2: 0.93). For warm engines, polynomial regression performed best for CO2 (R2: 0.95), and gradient boosting delivered results for THC (R2: 0.66). Although prediction accuracy varied by emission compound and engine state, the models consistently demonstrated high precision, offering a robust tool for managing emissions from aging vehicle fleets. These models offer valuable information for transportation policy and pollution reduction strategies, particularly in urban areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ammonia is a hydrogen-rich zero-carbon fuel, and is one of the most promising approaches to realize energy decarbonization in the fields of industry and transportation. Efficient operation and emissions control have been the primary obstacle to develop engines with high ammonia energy share. In this study, the combustion and emissions of an ammonia-fueled engine with diesel pilot ignition are investigated, and the target is to achieve ultra-high ammonia substitution with acceptable thermal efficiency. The ammonia energy share is first increased from 30% to 90% at an intermediate load, with a split diesel injection triggering ammonia combustion. It found that the increased ammonia energy share reduces the indicated thermal efficiency from 48.3% to 38.9% with high unburned ammonia emissions. The NOx emissions exhibit a turning point with increased ammonia substitution, which indicates that the NOx emissions transition from the thermal-dominated to the fuel-dominated regime. The diesel pilot injection strategy is then optimized, by advancing the main injection timing and changing the pre-injection amount and the interval between two injection events. Optimized diesel injection controls the ignition timing and combustion process, thereby improving thermal efficiency and emissions at high ammonia energy shares. An ultra-high ammonia energy share of 95% could be finally achieved, and the thermal efficiency is 40.2%. It is also noted that as engine load increases, engine thermal efficiency at an ammonia energy share of 80% could be elevated to 44.2%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents issues related to the assessment of concentrations of harmful substances in the exhaust gas cloud behind a compression-ignition passenger vehicle. The introduction describes issues related to the impact of air pollution on the environment and on human health and life expectancy. The article presents exhaust gas dispersion tests behind the vehicle were carried out both in stationary conditions (a specially prepared laboratory stand) and in real operating conditions. PEMS testing equipment was used for this type of measurements. During the measurements, concentrations of harmful exhaust gas compounds were analyzed in relation to the distance of the measuring probe from the exhaust system. In stationary conditions, the influence of the engine speed on the dispersion of pollutants was also studied. The tests carried out show that the concentrations obtained behind a moving vehicle significantly decrease with the distance of the measuring probe, and their dispersion is much smaller in most cases than in the case of stationary tests. This is the basis for recognizing that thanks to this, it is possible to analyze the concentrations obtained and conduct tests using the emission gate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, there is an intense debate in the European Union (EU) regarding the limits to achieve the European Green Deal, to make Europe the first climate-neutral continent in the world. In this context, there are also different opinions about the role that thermal engines should play. Furhermore, there is no clear proposal regarding the possibilities of the use of green hydrogen in the transport decarbonization process, even though it should be a key element. Thus, there are still no precise guidelines regarding the role of green hydrogen, with it being exclusively used as a raw material to produce E-fuels. This review aims to evaluate the possibilities of applying the different alternative technologies available to successfully complete the process already underway to achieve Climate Neutrality by about 2050, depending on the maturity of the technologies currently available, and those anticipated to be available in the coming decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the collected data of the Central Register of Vehicles, an average of 15,000 vehicles were registered per month in the Greater Poland region in 2020–2022. It should be borne in mind that most of them were conventionally powered cars-spark-ignition or compression-ignition engines, the daily operation of which negatively affects the environment. Institutions responsible for regulating the homologation of passenger vehicles are introducing increasingly stringent emission standards to reduce the harmful effects of vehicles on the environment. In addition, more and more public campaigns are being conducted on the use of cars equipped with alternative propulsion systems, e.g., electric, full-hybrid or increasingly popular hydrogen-powered vehicles. The publication presents forecasts for the replacement of vehicles equipped with spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines with cars equipped with hybrid propulsion systems or electric systems. Tests of vehicles in real operating conditions were carried out in the Poznań agglomeration in an urban area, where the number of vehicles per area is higher than in the case of a nonurban zone. The research objects were both cars equipped with a conventional drivetrain and a hybrid system. The research made it possible to draw up a hybridization index, which was then applied to the number of vehicles registered over the past few years.

In response to increasing environmental demands, modeling emissions from older vehicles presents a significant challenge. This paper introduces an innovative methodology that takes advantage of advanced AI and machine learning techniques to develop precise emission models for older vehicles. This study analyzed data from road tests and the OBDII diagnostic interface, focusing on CO2, CO, THC, and NOx emissions under both cold and warm engine conditions. The key results showed that random forest regression provided the best predictions for THC in a cold engine (R2: 0.76), while polynomial regression excelled for CO2 (R2: 0.93). For warm engines, polynomial regression performed best for CO2 (R2: 0.95), and gradient boosting delivered results for THC (R2: 0.66). Although prediction accuracy varied by emission compound and engine state, the models consistently demonstrated high precision, offering a robust tool for managing emissions from aging vehicle fleets. These models offer valuable information for transportation policy and pollution reduction strategies, particularly in urban areas.

The article presents the currently used technologies and solutions for rail vehicle drive systems that can be used in the future. The most popular systems used in locomotives and multiple units are described. In addition, modern solutions such as bi-mode locomotives and hybrid vehicles are shown. The article also discusses the possibility of using ultracapacitors, batteries, or fuel cells in order to increase the efficiency of the powertrain of a rail vehicle. The selection of the appropriate solution depends on the intended use of the vehicle and the assumed traction characteristics and requires a thorough analysis including, among others, modeling of the drive system and its management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, environmental noise has arisen from various sources, such as those from exhaust mufflers of combustion engines found in cars, trucks, or power generators, which produce significant noise during their operation. Controlling the radiated noise from these mufflers is a major factor in improving acoustic comfort and minimizing the impact on the surrounding communities. Numerous research has been presented for this reason by modification of the internal structure of the exhaust muffler. The main objective of this work is to reduce the noise level emitted from exhaust mufflers. This can be achieved by adjusting structure parameters to attenuate the surrounding environment’s radiated noise. Analysis of pressure-wave propagation has been done by building 3D models using COMSOL Multiphysics software. Different entities were conducted to investigate the influence of muffler shells and plate thicknesses on acoustic performance through the frequency domain to obtain better attenuation. SPL over a frequency band is presented, describing how the sound intensity varies at different frequencies within a given bandwidth. The results showed that increasing the muffler shell thickness improved the TL; this particularly causes a double value at a range above 1.2 kHz, where there are two distinct peaks at 1.3 kHz and 2.8 kHz. Additionally, it was found that increasing the muffler plate thickness reduces the TL whole range and moves the curve peak to higher frequencies. This is because the pressure pulses that stimulate the shell plates would exert a more distinct influence on plates characterized by a reduced thickness, and the muffler structure thickness is correlated with its increased stiffness, resulting in an elevation of the frequency for this eigenmode [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents an analysis of the influence of engine types, fuel types and selected methods of fuel treatment before injection on reductions in fuel consumption and exhaust emission components. This is the first of such studies, the continuation of which will allow a comprehensive assessment of the impact of cutter operations on environmental pollution. For the selected type of cutter, EEOIs (Energy Efficiency Operational Indicators) were determined to be a measure that takes into account both fuel consumption and harmful gas compound emissions depending on the type of engine used and the type of fuel. The data necessary to prepare this analysis were obtained during operational tests carried out on selected cutters with various types of engines fuelled with liquid fuel and a new catalytic fuel treatment method developed by the authors, while for the case of using gas fuel and a common rail engine, possible effects were forecasted. The effects of engine type, years of manufacture and fuel type (liquid and gas) on fuel consumption and emissions of selected exhaust components are demonstrated. The positive effects on fuel consumption and emissions of harmful exhaust constituents obtained, under laboratory test conditions, for an engine fuelled with catalytically treated fuel have allowed further research directions to be set for cutter engines equipped with injection equipment with applied catalytic coatings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of internal combustion engines is focused at solving problems like: fulfilment with increasingly stringent requirements regarding exhaust emissions and elimination of threats to the natural environment. The subject of this thesis is to assess the impact of supplying a compression-ignition engine with hydrocarbon mixtures and to examine the impact of water on external parameters of the engine, such as smoke opacity. The main tests were carried out on a 4-cylinder VW 1.9 TDI internal combustion engine at a constant engine crankshaft speed of 3000 rpm and a variable load of 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 Nm. The tests were carried out using an innovative mixture of hydrated fusel oils, ethyl alcohol and ionic and/or non-ionic emulsifiers, from which was made of microemulsions with a water content in diesel oil of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%. The tests carried out showed a beneficial effect of the water content in the diesel oil on the reduction of the average value of smoke opacity, which systematically decreases with the increase in the percentage of water in the diesel oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the results of tests, replaced according to the vehicle manufacturer's recommendations, of engine oils. The sample of engine oils in service came from spark-ignition and compression-ignition vehicles used in urban or mixed mode. During their collection, the type of drive unit, the mileage of the car and the number of kilometers the oil was used for were recorded for each sample (this was the main criterion for differentiating samples). In addition, a control group of samples consisting of fresh oils of the same viscosity grade and distributed by the same producer was set up to observe changes in the parameters of individual lubricants after the operating period. The first part of the empirical study consisted of determining the physicochemical properties of the lubricants, i.e.: kinematic viscosity, density and water content. The second part involved anti-wear tests using a T-02U tribometer. The use of the tribometer made it possible to record the antiwear parameter, i.e. moment of friction, and also the load imposed on the friction node, as a result of which it was possible to calculate the friction force and friction coefficient. The research was complemented by an analysis of worn surfaces of the friction node on a microscope. The tests carried out can be used for predictive purposes, in terms of assessing the condition of a lubricant subjected to an operating process in an internal combustion engine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper describes the results of the wear test of innovative sets of piston rings intended, among others, to drive diesel locomotives operated in North America, including the USA. The main subject of research is an innovative set of piston rings, the first sealing ring containing a synthetic diamond embedded in a porous chrome coating. The developed multilayer coating is designed to reduce the wear of the piston rings and the combustion engine cylinder. This technology has been implemented at Piston Rings Manufactory "Prima" S.A. in Łódź. The tests were carried out using a two-stroke diesel engine of the EMD 645 type. This engine is manufactured by General Motors Corporation in the United States. The described research was carried out in the United States in San Antonio, Texas, at the Southwest Research Institute. The EMD 645 engine is widely used in power units of heavy diesel locomotives and inland waterway barges in the United States of America, India, and South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, there is an intense debate in the European Union (EU) regarding the limits to achieve the European Green Deal, to make Europe the first climate-neutral continent in the world. In this context, there are also different opinions about the role that thermal engines should play. Furhermore, there is no clear proposal regarding the possibilities of the use of green hydrogen in the transport decarbonization process, even though it should be a key element. Thus, there are still no precise guidelines regarding the role of green hydrogen, with it being exclusively used as a raw material to produce E-fuels. This review aims to evaluate the possibilities of applying the different alternative technologies available to successfully complete the process already underway to achieve Climate Neutrality by about 2050, depending on the maturity of the technologies currently available, and those anticipated to be available in the coming decades.

The paper discusses some of the requirements, drivers, and resulting technological paths for manufacturers to develop hydrogen combustion engines for use in two types of market application – on-road heavy- and light-duty. One of the main requirements is legislative certainty, and this has now been afforded – at least in the major market of Europe – by the European Union's recent adoption into law of tailpipe emissions limits specifically designed to encourage the uptake of hydrogen engines in heavy-duty vehicles, giving manufacturers the confidence they need to invest in productionized solutions to offer to customers.It then discusses combustion systems and boosting systems for the two market types, emphasizing that heavy-duty vehicles need best efficiency throughout their operating map while light-duty ones, since they are rarely operated at full load, will mainly primarily need efficiency in the part-load region. This difference will likely cause a divergence in solutions, with heavy-duty engines running very lean everywhere and light-duty ones likely operating at the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, at least for most of the map. The impacts of the strategies on engine systems and vehicle integration are discussed.It is postulated that due to reasons of preignition avoidance and efficiency hydrogen engines will rapidly adopt direct injection and that the long-term heavy-duty types will migrate towards the typical current spark-ignition-type cylinder head architecture where tumble, rather than swirl, will ultimately be needed for air motion in the cylinder for these reasons. They may also adopt active pre-chamber technology to ignite extremely lean mixtures for maximum efficiency and minimum emissions of oxides of nitrogen.It is suggested that light-duty engines will evolve less from their current gasoline architectural norm since they already contain all of the necessary fundamentals for hydrogen combustion. However, since part-load efficiency will be important, some new strategies may become desirable. Developing dual-fuel light-duty engines could accelerate their uptake as the heavy-duty market simultaneously accelerates the creation of the fuel supply infrastructure.The likely technological evolution suggests that variable valve trains, and specifically cam profile switching technology, would be extremely useful for all types of hydrogen engine, especially since they are readily available in different gasoline engines now. New operating strategies afforded by variable valve trains would benefit both heavy- and light-duty engines, and these strategies will become more sophisticated. There will therefore likely be a convergence of technologies for the two markets, albeit with some key differences maintained due to their vehicle applications and their differing operation in the field.

The history of fishing has often been written from a local or regional perspective. There has gradually been a shift where fishing has been studied from a broader international perspective. Nevertheless, large international overviews need detailed studies of individual ports in a similar way as studies of individual ports benefit from the international perspective. The introduction of steam-powered fishing vessels in Scandinavia has often been regarded as an attempt to imitate fishing in Great Britain. However, a closer study of the Scandinavian countries shows that this does not match, for example, the Norwegian steam fishing fleet. Scandinavia's two main fishing ports with steam-powered fishing vessels, Ålesund in Norway and Gothenburg in Sweden, show great differences. Gothenburg is the place that has the most similarities with the large British fishing ports. Steam-powered fishing vessels played a modest role in Danish fishing. On the other hand, when it comes to the introduction of engines, the Danish fishery was the leader. However, it would take more than 30 years from the first functionable engines around the turn of the twentieth century before motor-driven fishing vessels could begin to compete with steam-powered fishing vessels. The problems of financing the new technology are emphasized in the article. Government loans were important in many countries, but much research is still needed to clarify the proportion that was government-financed and how much other financial actors contributed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of new Euro exhaust emission standards and CO2 limits has forced carmakers to implement alternative hybrid and electric powertrains. We are observing a dynamic advancement of this sector. The authors' primary motivation was to perform a series of measurements of the exhaust emissions and fuel mileages from vehicles fitted with hybrid, conventional and electric (range extender) powertrains. Three vehicles were used in the research project. The first one was a passenger car with a full hybrid powertrain. The vehicle was fitted with a 1.6 dm3 spark ignition engine. The second one was fitted with a 2.2 dm3 diesel engine. The third one was fitted with a 125 kW electric motor and a 28 kW combustion engine used as a range extender. The investigations were carried out according to the RDE (Real Driving Emission) methodology on a test route composed of urban, rural and highway portions. The test route was set in the Poznan agglomeration, and its distance was approx. 80 km. For the measurements, the authors used SEMTECH-DS from the PEMS (Portable Emissions Measurement System) equipment group. Based on the obtained results, the authors validated the test route in terms of the RDE compliance and determined the exhaust emissions and fuel mileages. The authors also analyzed the influence of the conditions of the measurements on the powertrain characteristics of each of the tested vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the article is the material and economic assessment of the life cycle of city buses with com-bustion engines. As part of the analysis, the analyzed parameters were optimized using neural networks with the use of a regression model. As part of the life cycle assessment criteria, three types of Solaris Urbino buses were analyzed. As a result of the research carried out for buses, the results were obtained regarding the optimal duration of operation, the number and cost of oil, air and fuel filter changes, and the replacement period of buses. The presented research and analyzes have a significant impact on the processes of purchasing and operating city buses.

The article explains the differences between synthetic fuels of first and second generation. The potential of e-fuels to reduce GHG emissions was indicated. The application requirements that synthetic fuels need to meet in order to be used for powering internal combustion engines have been described. The possibility of using synthetic fuels as "drop-in" fuels, in blends with conventional petroleum-derived fuels as well as by themselves was discussed. E-fuels developed and optimized to power compression ignition and spark ignition engines were characterized. The possibilities of synthetic fuels to reduce emissions of regulated and unregulated exhaust components and to improve the work and operational parameters of the engine were also analyzed using the research carried out so far as basis. At the end of the article, forecasts for synthetic fuels development and applications were presented in the form of a SWOT analysis.

The aim of the article is the material and economic assessment of the life cycle of city buses with combustion engines. As part of the analysis, the analyzed parameters were optimized using neural networks with the use of a regression model. As part of the life cycle assessment criteria, three types of Solaris Urbino buses were analyzed. As a result of the research carried out for buses, the results were obtained regarding the optimal duration of operation, the number and cost of oil, air and fuel filter changes, and the replacement period of buses. The presented research and analyzes have a significant impact on the processes of purchasing and operating city buses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explains the differences between synthetic fuels of first and second generation. The potential of e-fuels to reduce GHG emissions was indicated. The application requirements that synthetic fuels need to meet in order to be used for powering internal combustion engines have been described. The possibility of using synthetic fuels as "drop-in" fuels, in blends with conventional petroleum-derived fuels as well as by themselves was discussed. E-fuels developed and optimized to power compression ignition and spark ignition engines were characterized. The possibilities of synthetic fuels to reduce emissions of regulated and unregulated exhaust components and to improve the work and operational parameters of the engine were also analyzed using the research carried out so far as basis. At the end of the article, forecasts for synthetic fuels development and applications were presented in the form of a SWOT analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work is focused on the assessment of the performance and fine particulate matter emissions (PM2.5) of a turbocharged four-cylinder direct injection diesel engine operating under dual-fuel mode with Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). For load levels of 30%, 60% and 100%, measurements were taken, keeping the engine speed constant at 2200, 2500 and 3200 rpm, while the engine knock detonation was detected through a non-invasive internal system. According to experimental measurements, the abnormal knock combustion occurred at full load operation with a maximum LPG energy fraction of ~60%. The brake fuel conversion efficiency increased by 2.6% with an LPG energy fraction of 10%, where a fuel saving of 11.9% was achieved with respect to the diesel-only operation. The reduction of diesel consumption was around 50% with respect to 100% diesel operation at full load operations, where the highest brake fuel conversion efficiency was achieved. The brake fuel conversion efficiency decreased as LPG addition increased for all the engine loads. Regarding emissions, PM2.5 decreased with the addition of LPG. However, HC and CO emissions increased as LPG injection was higher. NOx emissions and exhaust gas temperatures were reduced for operation with higher LPG fractions, except for full load levels at 2200 and 2500 rpm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research indicates that there are two approaches to Electric Vehicle (EV) liquid cooling: direct and indirect. Direct liquid cooling involves direct contact between the coolant and the battery pack. Indirect liquid cooling requires a medium in between the battery pack and the coolant, preventing direct contact. Many prominent EV manufacturers have adopted indirect liquid cooling for example Tesla, and GM in North America. Currently, shelf coolants used for Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) are being used in many EV vehicles for indirect cooling. One of the challenges is absence of ASTM test methods for evaluating EV coolants. Some operators have used copper wires for generating deposits by employing voltage to test low conductivity EV coolants. Dober long ago realized that copper and aluminum will be the main components of EV engines hence used copper wire under high temp and pressure to show differentiation among coolants. The present paper focuses on Dober-in-house test Parr reactor methodology for comparing electrical conductivities, pH and additive depletion of various coolants thereby showing meaningful trends with time and temperature. This ultimately helps in developing new generation EV coolants. It is concluded that low electrical conductivity along with robust corrosion inhibition package is needed for optimum performance of EV coolants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents an analysis of the influence of engine types, fuel types and selected methods of fuel treatment before injection on reductions in fuel consumption and exhaust emission components. This is the first of such studies, the continuation of which will allow a comprehensive assessment of the impact of cutter operations on environmental pollution. For the selected type of cutter, EEOIs (Energy Efficiency Operational Indicators) were determined to be a measure that takes into account both fuel consumption and harmful gas compound emissions depending on the type of engine used and the type of fuel. The data necessary to prepare this analysis were obtained during operational tests carried out on selected cutters with various types of engines fuelled with liquid fuel and a new catalytic fuel treatment method developed by the authors, while for the case of using gas fuel and a common rail engine, possible effects were forecasted. The effects of engine type, years of manufacture and fuel type (liquid and gas) on fuel consumption and emissions of selected exhaust components are demonstrated. The positive effects on fuel consumption and emissions of harmful exhaust constituents obtained, under laboratory test conditions, for an engine fuelled with catalytically treated fuel have allowed further research directions to be set for cutter engines equipped with injection equipment with applied catalytic coatings.

Emissions from the road transport sector are a major contributor to the climate change. Commonly used heavy vehicles powered by diesel engines emit toxic and harmful compounds that adversely affect the environment. For this reason, increasingly newer Euro emission standards are being introduced. Therefore, the emission performance of heavy-duty vehicles used in the transportation processes of diverse loads was investigated. The first research object was a set of vehicles equipped with a crane used for loading and unloading timber. The measurements were carried out in a specially designed research test reflecting the way the vehicle is used. It consisted of the drive to the loading site, the transport of timber to the destination and the processes of loading and unloading timber. The test route included driving on both unpaved forest roads and asphalt roads. The second research object was a set of vehicles used in long-distance road transport. The research route characterizing the traffic of vehicles from the cited group was selected here. There were three stages of the route–urban, extra-urban and highway. The whole trip was carried out with a load of 24,800 kg. The testing equipment consisted of SEMTECH DS and AVL Micro Soot Sensor devices belonging to the PEMS (Portable Emission Measurement System) group. Based on the obtained results, the influence of the operating conditions on the exhaust emissions and fuel consumption was determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional fuels commonly used in cars with combustion engines and the effects of their combustion have a very negative impact on the state of the environment. The combustion of liquid fuels causes the introduction of many thousands of tons of CO2 and other harmful substances into the atmosphere every year. That is why the authorities of many countries are introducing more and more stringent emission standards for cars with internal combustion engines, and car manufacturers are trying to meet these standards. Therefore, the aim of the undertaken research was to compile and analyze the power of spark engines in individual capacity ranges, compression ratios, efficiency, CO2 emissions, dependence of combustion on engine capacity, dependence of CO2 emissions on engine capacity, and dependence of combustion on engine power. The conducted research also compared the level of average selected variables related to CO2 emission in terms of engine displacement by country of production using statistical analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysis of the possibility of using a rotary engine based electric generator to propell a powered sailplane. The paper presents analysis of utilising Wankel type enine as a power input for an electric generator in the motor glider propulsion system. This generator would be a part of the propulsion system of a hybrid motor glider using the AOS 71 motor glider airframe. In the research, the rotational characteristics of the LCR 407ti wankel engine were determined experimentally. Driving torque run, power and fuel consumption were determined as a function of engine speed. The obtained results are presented in diagrams. The conceptual diagram of the hybrid drive is presented. The electric generator was selected and its effectiveness, as well as the effectiveness of entire propulsion system was assessed from the motor glider's performance point of view. Basing on the research conducted, conclusions were drawn and there were indicated the objectives and directions of further research on hybrid propulsion with specific aerodynamic and mass limitations of the aircraft

The introduction of new Euro exhaust emission standards and CO2 limits has forced carmakers to implement alternative hybrid and electric powertrains. We are observing a dynamic advancement of this sector. The authors’ primary motivation was to perform a series of measurements of the exhaust emissions and fuel mileages from vehicles fitted with hybrid, conventional and electric (range extender) powertrains. Three vehicles were used in the research project. The first one was a passenger car with a full hybrid powertrain. The vehicle was fitted with a 1.6 dm3 spark ignition engine. The second one was fitted with a 2.2 dm3 diesel engine. The third one was fitted with a 125 kW electric motor and a 28 kW combustion engine used as a range extender. The investigations were carried out according to the RDE (Real Driving Emission) methodology on a test route composed of urban, rural and highway portions. The test route was set in the Poznan agglomeration, and its distance was approx. 80 km. For the measurements, the authors used SEMTECH-DS from the PEMS (Portable Emissions Measurement System) equipment group. Based on the obtained results, the authors validated the test route in terms of the RDE compliance and determined the exhaust emissions and fuel mileages. The authors also analyzed the influence of the conditions of the measurements on the powertrain characteristics of each of the tested vehicles.

Currently in Europe, road freight transport is characterized by the most dynamic advancement. Year after year, we may observe an increase in the amount of transported goods. The paper presents the emissions of gaseous exhaust components such as CO, THC, and NOx as well as fuel consumption in freight transport. The emission analysis was performed for the entire transport cycle covering the handling of the goods with forklifts and carriage with a heavy-duty truck. The investigations were performed under actual conditions of operation using a Portable Emission Measurement System (PEMS). The fuel mileage was determined using the carbon balance method. The test routes were designed so as to reproduce the transport-logistic system typical of small towns. The setting for the tests was a town located in central Poland near the A2 motorway constituting part of the trans-European logistic network with multiple locations of logistic centers. In order to present the real emissions during handling, two test variants were considered: an outdoor variant (on a nearby lot) and inside a warehouse. The test run of the heavy-duty truck involved transporting 24,000 kg of load on urban and extra-urban (local and intercity) roads. The exhaust emissions and fuel mileage were determined for each of the stages as well as for the entire research cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the paper is to study the heat transfer in the exhaust manifold of a naturally aspirated diesel engine. The work has started from the exhaust manifold of the test engine D30 which was redesigned in CATIA V5, then pre-processed in Comsol Multiphysics. The results of the post-processing phase have generated temperature, velocity, pressure and Reynolds number fields which were compared with experimental data from engine dynamometric test. For a higher accuracy the temperatures of exhaust manifold surfaces were measured both with IR Camera Imager and thermocouples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to verify the criteria for selecting pleated filter partitions used in passenger car engine filters. The paper presents the problem of optimizing pleated air filters in the dir ection of minimizing pressure drop, which is the source of engine energy losses. Two criteria for selection of a paper filter partition for specific operating conditions of the filter and the engine are presented: criterion of permissible separation speed and criterion of permissible pressure drop. The actual filtration area of 44 paper pleated filter elements used in passenger cars and the air stream flowing through the filter were determined, which made it possible to calculate separation speed. In 62% of the analyzed filter inserts, the calculated separation speeds are within the speed range recommended by the constructors, Fmax = 0,06-0,12 m/s. Exceeding permissible separation speed Fmax = 0,12 m/s was found mainly in supercharged engines. Negative effects of engine operation with an air filter with too small separation area are presented, in the form of increased pressure drop and energy loss of the engine as well as shorter car mileage to reach permissible pressure drop.

New designs of internal combustion engines require the use of engine oils that can cope with more demanding conditions, primarily with greater loads and higher temperatures. The requirements of recent years have led to a wider use of modern base oils and specially designed additive packages. This avoids the formation of impurities and changes in viscosity as a result of shearing of the viscosity additives under high loads. The article discusses the important problem of oil aging during operation and the impact of this phenomenon on the operation of internal combustion engines. The influence of oil service life and its replacement on the emission of toxic exhaust gas components was discussed, and the results of research on the effect of oil service life on changes in their viscosity were presented.

In the paper, an attempt was made to computationally demonstrate the effect of the plunger pressure stiffness on the opening and closing times of the low-pressure gasphase injector as a filling of the research gap in this subject. Based on the presented mathematical model describing the operation of the injector, firstly the results were related to the manufacturer's technical data showing a shorter time to full opening by 2.77% and a longer time to full closing by 0.50%. On this basis, it was considered that the proposed model can be used for comparison purposes. In the assumed range of compression spring stiffness (100... 2000) N/m, it was shown that as the stiffness increases, the time to fully open decreases by 18.85%, while the time to fully closed decreases by 80.17%. Additionally, it is shown that the time-cross section as the stiffness of the compression spring increases can decrease up to 35.21% from the initial value. The obtained results can be useful in modeling the operation of an internal combustion engine or in the operational assessment of the gas injector condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Further restrictions on the use of compression-ignition engines in transportation are prompting the search for adaptations to run on other fuels. One of the most popular alternative fuels is Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), which due to its low carbon content can be competitive with classical fuels. This paper presents the results of testing a Cummins 6BT compression ignition engine that has undergone numerous modifications to convert to CNG power. The sequential gas injection system and the ignition system were installed in this engine. The compression ratio was also lowered from 16.5 to 11.5 by replacing the pistons. Tests conducted on an engine dynamometer were to show the differences in emission and conversion in the catalyst of hydrocarbons contained in the exhaust gases. Two structurally different catalysts operating at different exhaust temperatures (400 and 500)±2.5°C were used. The catalyst operating at 500±2.5°C showed a 23.5% higher conversion rate than the catalyst operating at a lower temperature in the range of the speed range tested. Also the external indicators, such as power and torque for the case of higher operating temperature took values over 70% higher. The research is one of the stages of a comprehensive assessment of the possibility of adaptation of compression ignition engines to CNG-only fueling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysis of the possibility of using a rotary engine based electric generator to propell a powered sailplane. The paper presents analysis of utilising Wankel type enine as a power input for an electric generator in the motor glider propulsion system. This generator would be a part of the propulsion system of a hybrid motor glider using the AOS 71 motor glider airframe. In the research, the rotational characteristics of the LCR 407ti wankel engine were determined experimentally. Driving torque run, power and fuel consumption were determined as a function of engine speed. The obtained results are presented in diagrams. The conceptual diagram of the hybrid drive is presented. The electric generator was selected and its effectiveness, as well as the effectiveness of entire propulsion system was assessed from the motor glider's performance point of view. Basing on the research conducted, conclusions were drawn and there were indicated the objectives and directions of further research on hybrid propulsion with specific aerodynamic and mass limitations of the aircraft. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work is focused on the assessment of the performance and fine particulate matter emissions (PM2.5) of a turbocharged four-cylinder direct injection diesel engine operating under dual-fuel mode with Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). For load levels of 30%, 60% and 100%, measurements were taken, keeping the engine speed constant at 2200, 2500 and 3200 rpm, while the engine knock detonation was detected through a non-invasive internal system. According to experimental measurements, the abnormal knock combustion occurred at full load operation with a maximum LPG energy fraction of ~60%. The brake fuel conversion efficiency increased by 2.6% with an LPG energy fraction of 10%, where a fuel saving of 11.9% was achieved with respect to the diesel-only operation. The reduction of diesel consumption was around 50% with respect to 100% diesel operation at full load operations, where the highest brake fuel conversion efficiency was achieved. The brake fuel conversion efficiency decreased as LPG addition increased for all the engine loads. Regarding emissions, PM2.5 decreased with the addition of LPG. However, HC and CO emissions increased as LPG injection was higher. NOx emissions and exhaust gas temperatures were reduced for operation with higher LPG fractions, except for full load levels at 2200 and 2500 rpm.

Emissions from the road transport sector are a major contributor to the climate change. Commonly used heavy vehicles powered by diesel engines emit toxic and harmful compounds that adversely affect the environment. For this reason, increasingly newer Euro emission standards are being introduced. Therefore, the emission performance of heavy-duty vehicles used in the transportation processes of diverse loads was investigated. The first research object was a set of vehicles equipped with a crane used for loading and unloading timber. The measurements were carried out in a specially designed research test reflecting the way the vehicle is used. It consisted of the drive to the loading site, the transport of timber to the destination and the processes of loading and unloading timber. The test route included driving on both unpaved forest roads and asphalt roads. The second research object was a set of vehicles used in long-distance road transport. The research route characterizing the traffic of vehicles from the cited group was selected here. There were three stages of the route–urban, extra-urban and highway. The whole trip was carried out with a load of 24,800 kg. The testing equipment consisted of SEMTECH DS and AVL Micro Soot Sensor devices belonging to the PEMS (Portable Emission Measurement System) group. Based on the obtained results, the influence of the operating conditions on the exhaust emissions and fuel consumption was determined.

Abstract The paper presents a method of calculating the full load engine characteristics based on the Leiderman–Khlystov relation. Because the values of the coefficients of the discussed function available in literature were determined for obsolete engine designs, an attempt was made to update them. To this end, a chassis dynamometer was used where a database of results had been built for a variety of vehicles. Following the data collection, the coefficients for variety of fueling system (six groups: fuel injected gasoline and turbocharged gasoline, spark ignition LPG I–II and IV generation, naturally aspirated diesel and turbocharged diesel) were determined. The identification of the coefficients was carried out in Matlab-Simulink indicating the applicability of the said function for most of the engines, yet the recent popularity of turbocharged gasoline engines requires an additional analysis of the possibility of use of a different functional description. The full load engine characteristics is a basis for the vehicle performance characteristics and, further, for modeling of traffic in a variety of aspects of the vehicle operation.

The article presents selected problems concerning tests of toxic exhaust emissions from engines of vehicles, mobile devices, engines used in gardening and construction works. For this group of engines, this type of testing is carried out primarily in laboratory conditions, however, variable load conditions during actual operation justify efforts to determine the level of emissions in real operating conditions. Research in real operating conditions for different engine categories becomes increasingly more standard, in this aspect, it is necessary to verify the state of knowledge and methodology in the aspect of testing engines of machines and mobile devices. The research performed by the authors was the first of this type using PEMS equipment, hence some conclusions and observations can be made from the obtained results. At present, the type approval procedures for the engine group in question do not account for emissions tests in real operating conditions, while also missing any description of a standardized research methodology. In addition, the engine group in question is not really suitable for testing in real conditions. An introduction to research aimed at developing an exhaust emission test methodology in real operating conditions of mobile device engines was included in the article.

Comparative analysis of combustion and hybrid propulsion unit in aviation application in terms of emission of harmful compounds in the exhausts emitted to the atmosphere. For the propulsion of the AOS 71 motor glider, two types of propulsion were planned as de-velopment versions. The first analysed propulsion is based on a combustion engine, but of the Wankel type (LCR 814 engine with the power of 55 kW). The second designed propulsion is an hybrid based on a LCR 407 combustion engine with a power of 28 kW, which is connected in series with an electric generator propelling the engine (Emrax 228 engine), total power of the propulsion is 55 kW. The comparison of emissions of harmful compounds emitted to the atmosphere generated by the combustion and hybrid power unit intended for assembly in the AOS 71 motor glider, assuming various loads and methods of hybrid propulsion control, was made. The tests were conducted in laboratory conditions. Several different programs were designed to simulate different energy management methods in a hybrid system, depending on the predicted mission and load of the motor glider. On the basis of laboratory tests, exhaust emission was determined from both propulsions as a function of rotational speed and load. Then, based on the assumed flight trajectory and collected test data, the emission for both propulsions variants was determined. The values of emission parameters were compared and the results were presented in diagrams and discussed in the conclusions

Analysis of the possibility of using an engine with a rotating piston as the propulsion of an electric generator in application to a motor glider propulsion The paper presents an analysis of the possibilities of application of a rotating piston engine (Wankel type) as a propulsion for an electric generator in the motor glider propulsion system. This generator would be a part of the propulsion system of a hybrid motor glider using the AOS 71 motor glider airframe. In the research, the rotational characteristics of the LCR 407ti engine were determined experimentally. Driving torque run, power and fuel consumption were determined as a function of engine speed. The obtained results are presented in diagrams. The conceptual diagram of the hybrid drive is presented. The current generator was selected and the effectiveness of the generator and the entire propulsion were assessed from the motor gliders performance point of view. On the basis of the conducted research, conclusions were drawn and there were indicated the objectives and directions of further research on hybrid propulsion with specific aerodynamic and mass limitations of the aircraft

Rail vehicles are one of the sources of environmental pollution in the transport sector. Therefore, it is necessary to equip these vehi-cles with modern drive systems. This article concerns the issues of contemporary and future-oriented solutions of drive systems used in rail vehicles. The article analyzes energy storage possibilities including: electrochemical, mechanical and hydraulic accumulators. The conducted analyzes have taken into account the importance of how frequently they charge up, which dictates their possible applications. Characteristics of hybrid drive systems were presented, with particular emphasis on parallel systems of: hydrostatic, flywheels and electrochemical batteries. The analysis of energy flow control strategies in hybrid drive systems of railway vehicles has been made. In the summary, a solution was chosen that resulted in high conversion efficiency of the energy extracted from the vehicles wheels.

The article presents the exhaust emission results from a diesel engine in dynamic states of engine operation in the driving tests: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) and Malta test, developed at the Poznan University of Technology. The NEDC and Malta tests were carried out as simulations on the engine test bench mimicking the driving tests conditions. The test results of the emission of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides obtained in each of the tests were presented. The dynamic states have been classified de-pending on the time derivative value of the torque and engine rotational speed. Both the positive and negative as well as zero time deriv-ative values of torque and rotational speed were considered. Therefore, overall six types of dynamic states were analyzed. A high sensi-tivity of exhaust emission to various types of dynamic states was found. The exhaust emission sensitivity to dynamic states in the Malta test was found to be higher than for the NEDC test, although these tests have similar properties (average rotational speed and average torque). This is due to the fact that the NEDC test is created on the basis of the similarity of zero-dimensional characteristics of the cars speed characteristic, whereas the Malta test was designed in accordance with the principle of faithful representation in the time domain of the NEDC speed curve.