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A growing body of evidence indicates that the global diversity of freshwater fishes has not been fully documented. Studies of freshwater fishes that were previously thought to be morphologically variable have revealed the existence of deeply divergent lineages, with many distinct species. In southern Africa a number of Enteromius species exhibit either exceedingly wide or divided distribution patterns that should be rare for freshwater fishes with limited dispersal opportunities between river systems. One such species is the sidespot barb, Enteromius neefi. As currently defined, E. neefi has a disjunct distribution that is divided between rivers in the northeast escarpment in South Africa and Eswatini, and tributaries of the Upper Zambezi in Zambia and southern Congo in the Democratic Republic of Congo, with a large geographic gap between these two populations. With the use of molecular and morphological methods, the level of divergence between the two populations was examined, and a new species was described from the Steelpoort River in the Limpopo River system of South Africa. Findings from this study provide further evidence for a number of taxonomic problems within the goldie barbs of southern Africa, and some taxonomic rearrangements are proposed for this group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal body coloration is often linked to social dominance and mating success. This is because it can carry information on an animal's body condition and competitive ability by reflecting the genetic quality of individuals or by responding to their current or past living conditions. The present study investigates genetic and environmental effects on a conspicuous color pattern of the cichlid fish Tropheus sp. black "Ikola," in which the size of a carotenoid‐based yellow area on the body co‐varies with social dominance. To examine environmental plasticity of the color pattern, we tested for effects of early‐life stress, induced by reduced feeding of juveniles prior to color pattern formation, as well as effects of a stress treatment administered to fully colored adult fish. None of the stress treatments affected the color pattern as quantified by the width of the yellow bar. However, offspring bar width was correlated to parental values in mid‐parent‐mid‐offspring regression analyses, and animal models estimated significant additive genetic effects on bar width, indicating heritability of the trait. Depending on the random effects structure of the animal models (i.e., whether including or excluding maternal and brood effects), narrow‐sense heritability estimates for bar width ranged between 0.2 and 0.8, with the strongest statistical support for the highest estimate. In each of the alternative models, a large proportion of the total variance in bar width was explained by the included random effects, suggesting that bar width is strongly determined by genetic factors or shared maternal and brood environments, with limited scope for environmental influences later in life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Eyespot foci on butterfly wings function as organizers for eyespot color patterns during development. Here, we microscopically examined the scales, sockets, and wing membrane at the eyespot foci of butterfly wings using the Blue Pansy butterfly. Although not always, at the eyespot foci, scales showed disordered planar polarity, sockets were irregularly positioned, and the wing membrane was physically distorted. Physical damage in the background area induced ectopic patterns with socket array irregularities and wing membrane distortions, similar to natural eyespot foci. These results suggest that either the process of determining an eyespot focus or the function of an eyespot organizer may be associated with wing-wide mechanics that physically disrupt socket cells, scale cells, and the wing membrane. Eyespot foci on butterfly wings function as organizers of eyespot color patterns during development. Despite their importance, focal structures have not been examined in detail. Here, we microscopically examined scales, sockets, and the wing membrane in the butterfly eyespot foci of both expanded and unexpanded wings using the Blue Pansy butterfly Junonia orithya. Images from a high-resolution light microscope revealed that, although not always, eyespot foci had scales with disordered planar polarity. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images after scale removal revealed that the sockets were irregularly positioned and that the wing membrane was physically distorted as if the focal site were mechanically squeezed from the surroundings. Focal areas without eyespots also had socket array irregularities, but less frequently and less severely. Physical damage in the background area induced ectopic patterns with socket array irregularities and wing membrane distortions, similar to natural eyespot foci. These results suggest that either the process of determining an eyespot focus or the function of an eyespot organizer may be associated with wing-wide mechanics that physically disrupt socket cells, scale cells, and the wing membrane, supporting the physical distortion hypothesis of the induction model for color pattern determination in butterfly wings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest, one the five main biodiversity hotspots in the world, still houses many organisms that are rare and unknown to science, mostly concentrated in mountain ranges. Herein, we describe a rare new species of Cambeva from the Rio Tietê drainage at the Serra da Mantiqueira, exhibiting a caudal fin color pattern comprising a light-yellowish–white bar posteriorly edged by a black pigmented area. A similar color pattern was described for C. castroi, C. diabola, and C. melanoptera, also endemic to the Rio Paraná basin, and considered evidence of close relationships among these three species. However, other morphological characteristics highly suggest that the new species is not closely related to C. castroi, C. diabola, and C. melanoptera). Herein, we perform a molecular phylogenetic analysis using two mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene, including all species with that bicolored caudal pattern. The analysis strongly supports the new species as a member of the alpha-clade, and therefore as distantly related to those three species belonging to the beta-clade, indicating that this color pattern has homoplastically arisen in Cambeva. The data reported here reinforce the urgent need for field studies to better understand the different evolutionary patterns found in the genus, since an intense process of environmental degradation is in course.

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest, one the five main biodiversity hotspots in the world, still houses many organisms that are rare and unknown to science, mostly concentrated in mountain ranges. Herein, we describe a rare new species of Cambeva from the Rio Tietê drainage at the Serra da Mantiqueira, exhibiting a caudal fin color pattern comprising a light-yellowish–white bar posteriorly edged by a black pigmented area. A similar color pattern was described for C. castroi, C. diabola, and C. melanoptera, also endemic to the Rio Paraná basin, and considered evidence of close relationships among these three species. However, other morphological characteristics highly suggest that the new species is not closely related to C. castroi, C. diabola, and C. melanoptera). Herein, we perform a molecular phylogenetic analysis using two mitochondrial genes and one nuclear gene, including all species with that bicolored caudal pattern. The analysis strongly supports the new species as a member of the alpha-clade, and therefore as distantly related to those three species belonging to the beta-clade, indicating that this color pattern has homoplastically arisen in Cambeva. The data reported here reinforce the urgent need for field studies to better understand the different evolutionary patterns found in the genus, since an intense process of environmental degradation is in course. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Animal body coloration is often linked to social dominance and mating success. This is because it can carry information on an animal's body condition and competitive ability by reflecting the genetic quality of individuals or by responding to their current or past living conditions. The present study investigates genetic and environmental effects on a conspicuous color pattern of the cichlid fish Tropheus sp. black “Ikola,” in which the size of a carotenoid‐based yellow area on the body co‐varies with social dominance. To examine environmental plasticity of the color pattern, we tested for effects of early‐life stress, induced by reduced feeding of juveniles prior to color pattern formation, as well as effects of a stress treatment administered to fully colored adult fish. None of the stress treatments affected the color pattern as quantified by the width of the yellow bar. However, offspring bar width was correlated to parental values in mid‐parent‐mid‐offspring regression analyses, and animal models estimated significant additive genetic effects on bar width, indicating heritability of the trait. Depending on the random effects structure of the animal models (i.e., whether including or excluding maternal and brood effects), narrow‐sense heritability estimates for bar width ranged between 0.2 and 0.8, with the strongest statistical support for the highest estimate. In each of the alternative models, a large proportion of the total variance in bar width was explained by the included random effects, suggesting that bar width is strongly determined by genetic factors or shared maternal and brood environments, with limited scope for environmental influences later in life.

Simple Summary: The Chironomidae family stands out as the most widely dispersed and often the most abundant insect group in freshwater habitats. The significance of color patterns is well-recognized, as they fulfill multiple roles such as communication, camouflage, mimicking, and defense. However, the taxonomy of species within this family, relying on color patterns, as well as the shape and distribution of thoracic pigmentation, wing markings, and leg pigmentation, remains controversial and unstable. Here, we conduct a comprehensive review on the taxonomy of a Chiromidae genus, Stictochironomus from China, which is characterized by a combination of distinctive wing and leg markings. Using DNA barcode data and morphological data, two new species to science from China are well supported. Species delimitation analyses performed with distance-based approach and coalescent tree-based approaches also support them as distinct species. Therefore, color patterns should be a good diagnostic characteristic for species delimitation in Stictochironomus. Furthermore, we provided an up-to-date taxonomic key for male adults of Stictochironomus from China. The genus Stictochironomus (Diptera: Chironomidae) has an almost worldwide distribution, with more than 30 species. However, species delimitation and identification based on the markings on the wings and legs are controversial and uncertain. In this study, we focused on color patterns to review the adults of the genus from China, and two new species (S. trifuscipes sp. nov. and S. quadrimaculatus sp. nov.) are described and figured. DNA barcodes can accurately separate the two new species with specific color patterns. However, heterospecific individuals form a monophyletic cluster in the phylogeny tree. For example, S. maculipennis (Meigen) and S. pictulus (Meigen), which have a lower interspecific genetic divergence, form a single clade. Sequences with the same species name but with high intraspecific distance form more than one phylogenetic clade, such as S. sticticus (Fabricius) of three clades, S. pictulus of four clades, S. akizukii (Tokunaga) and S. juncaii Qi, Shi, and Wang of two clades, might have potential cryptic species diversity. Species delimitation analysis using ASAP, PTP, and GMYC clearly delineated them as separate species. Consequently, color patterns are a good diagnostic characteristic for species delimitation in Stictochironomus. The distance-based analysis shows that a threshold of 4.5–7.7% is appropriate for species delimitation in Stictochironomus. Additionally, an updated key including color pattern variation for male adults of known Stictochironomus species from China is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Well‐being is commonly communicated across industries; however, experimental understanding how human perceive skin health and skin stresses are not sufficient. Materials and Methods: Image analysis algorithm, a* gradient, was developed to evaluate spatial pattern and shape of red signal on skin. Human perception for skin health and stresses were compared with technical measurements in two visual perception studies. Results: a* gradient correlated with perceived Inflamed Skin (R = 0.73, p < 0.01), Stressed Skin (R = 0.79, p < 0.01), Sensitive Skin (R = 0.75, p < 0.01), Healthy Skin (R = ‐0.83, p < 0.01), and Start Aging (R = 0.75, p < 0.01). Conclusions: Disordered spatial pattern of redness signal drives human perception of skin health, stress, and aging. This new skin index of redness signal shows higher correlation with those human perception than basal a* mean, unevenness of a*, and other conventional skin color attributes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study aims to evaluate the diagnostic performance of quantitative shear wave elastography (SWE) and a new qualitative color pattern SWE for the differentiation of benign and malignant American College of Radiology Thyroid Imaging, Reporting, and Data System (ACR TI-RADS) 4 or 5 category thyroid nodules measuring =10 mm. Materials and methods: From May 2020 to July 2022, a total of 237 patients with 270 thyroid nodules were enrolled, and conventional ultrasound and SWE examinations were performed for each patient. Each ACR TI-RADS 4 or 5 category thyroid nodule measuring =10 mm was evaluated by quantitative SWE and a new qualitative color pattern SWE. The diagnostic performance of quantitative SWE parameters, the new qualitative color pattern SWE, and the combination of SWE with ACR TI-RADS, respectively, for the differentiation of benign and malignant ACR TI-RADS 4 or 5 category thyroid nodules measuring =10 mm was evaluated and compared. Results: Among 270 thyroid nodules in 237 patients, 72 (26.67%) thyroid nodules were benign and 198 (73.33%) thyroid nodules were malignant. The qualitative color pattern SWE showed better diagnostic performance than the quantitative SWE parameters. When combining the qualitative color pattern SWE with ACR TIRADS scores, with the optimal cutoff value of the total points =8, the thyroid nodules were considered malignant. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and AUC were 89.90%, 56.94%, 81.11%, and 0.820 (95% CI: 0.768-0.864), respectively. Compared with using qualitative color pattern SWE alone, the combination of qualitative color pattern SWE and ACR TI-RADS had better diagnostic performance, which was significantly different (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The combination of qualitative SWE color patterns and ACR TIRADS had high sensitivity and accuracy, which might be a convenient and useful method to differentiate benign and malignant ACR TI-RADS 4 or 5 category thyroid nodules measuring =10 mm. It would be helpful for the management of thyroid nodules and improving prognosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Brachychalcinus is described from the rio Mapaoni, rio Jari basin, and the coastal rio Araguari, Amapá and Pará states, Brazil. The new species is distinguished from all congeners, except B. reisi, by possessing conspicuous longitudinal dark stripes across the body. It can be diagnosed from B. reisi by having longer predorsal and preanal spines, by having scales with few curved radii, and by having more scale rows between lateral line and midventral scale series. A single specimen from rio Tapajós (Pará, Brazil) bears all the diagnostic features of the new species and is herein tentatively identified as belonging to this taxon, extending its distribution to this river basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aposematic prey advertise their unprofitability with conspicuous warning signals that are often composed of multiple color patterns. Many species show intraspecific variation in these patterns even though selection is expected to favor invariable warning signals that enhance predator learning. However, if predators acquire avoidance to specific signal components, this might relax selection on other aposematic traits and explain variability. Here, we investigated this idea in the aposematic moth Amata nigriceps that has conspicuous black and orange coloration. The size of the orange spots in the wings is highly variable between individuals, whereas the number and width of orange abdominal stripes remains consistent. We produced artificial moths that varied in the proportion of orange in the wings or the presence of abdominal stripes. We presented these to a natural avian predator, the noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala) , and recorded how different warning signal components influenced their attack decisions. When moth models had orange stripes on the abdomen, birds did not discriminate between different wing signals. However, when the stripes on the abdomen were removed, birds chose the model with smaller wing spots. In addition, we found that birds were more likely to attack moths with a smaller number of abdominal stripes. Together, our results suggest that bird predators primarily pay attention to the abdominal stripes of A. nigriceps, and this could relax selection on wing coloration. Our study highlights the importance of considering individual warning signal components if we are to understand how predation shapes selection on prey warning coloration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although Hubbs' beaked whale (Mesoplodon carlhubbsi) was previously known from over 60 strandings on both sides of the North Pacific, it had been identified alive in the wild only once, off Oregon in 1994. In September 2021, we conducted a search effort for beaked whales off the coast of Oregon using a towed hydrophone array and a visual search team. Approximately 350 km off the Columbia River mouth, we detected the vocalizations of an unidentified mesoplodont whale; we stopped our vessel and waited in the area until two unidentified juvenile Mesoplodon surfaced and stayed near our vessel for almost 2 hr. During that time, we took numerous photographs and videos, made behavioral observations, and recorded their vocalizations. The DNA sequence from a biopsy sample identified them as M. carlhubbsi. In this paper, we discuss our biological observations, including color patterning and acquired markings, behavioral observations, and describe for the first time the acoustic characteristics of this species. We confirm that M. carlhubbsi is the source of a previously unidentified acoustic signal known as BW37V, and we update what is known about the at‐sea distribution of this species based on previous recordings and observational records. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The color pattern of insects is one of the most diverse adaptive evolutionary phenotypes. However, the molecular regulation of this color pattern is not fully understood. In this study, we found that the transcription factor Bm-mamo is responsible for black dilute (bd) allele mutations in the silkworm. Bm-mamo belongs to the BTB zinc finger family and is orthologous to mamo in Drosophila melanogaster. This gene has a conserved function in gamete production in Drosophila and silkworms and has evolved a pleiotropic function in the regulation of color patterns in caterpillars. Using RNAi and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) technology, we showed that Bm-mamo is a repressor of dark melanin patterns in the larval epidermis. Using in vitro binding assays and gene expression profiling in wild-type and mutant larvae, we also showed that Bm-mamo likely regulates the expression of related pigment synthesis and cuticular protein genes in a coordinated manner to mediate its role in color pattern formation. This mechanism is consistent with the dual role of this transcription factor in regulating both the structure and shape of the cuticle and the pigments that are embedded within it. This study provides new insight into the regulation of color patterns as well as into the construction of more complex epidermal features in some insects.

Eyespot foci on butterfly wings function as organizers of eyespot color patterns during development. Despite their importance, focal structures have not been examined in detail. Here, we microscopically examined scales, sockets, and the wing membrane in the butterfly eyespot foci of both expanded and unexpanded wings using the Blue Pansy butterfly Junonia orithya. Images from a high-resolution light microscope revealed that, although not always, eyespot foci had scales with disordered planar polarity. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images after scale removal revealed that the sockets were irregularly positioned and that the wing membrane was physically distorted as if the focal site were mechanically squeezed from the surroundings. Focal areas without eyespots also had socket array irregularities, but less frequently and less severely. Physical damage in the background area induced ectopic patterns with socket array irregularities and wing membrane distortions, similar to natural eyespot foci. These results suggest that either the process of determining an eyespot focus or the function of an eyespot organizer may be associated with wing-wide mechanics that physically disrupt socket cells, scale cells, and the wing membrane, supporting the physical distortion hypothesis of the induction model for color pattern determination in butterfly wings.

Under the production mode of small-batch and multi-item, the recognition of yarn-dyed fabric patterns is a crucial task in the textile industry. In this article, an automatic recognition system based on pixel-level features is proposed to recognize the density, the weave pattern, and the color pattern. In this system, the fabric images are captured by a scanner. First, a method based on the Hough transform is used to correct the skew of the yarns, including warp and weft. Second, the yarns and nodes are located in the enhanced images with a brightness-projection method. The density can be calculated by using the results. Then, the type of each node is identified based on the boundary information. We can obtain the weave pattern after knowing the type of each node. Finally, the fuzzy C-means algorithm is used to determine the color of each node, and thus we obtain the color pattern of the yarn-dyed fabric. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed recognition system is effective for detecting the structural parameters of yarn-dyed fabric. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In animals, reproductive interference associated with mimicry can result in the evolution of private communication channels, as suggested for Heliconius butterflies, where cryptic color wavelength would drive male preference for conspecific over intergeneric co‐mimics. Here, we tested this hypothesis in two co‐mimic pairs (intra and intergeneric) and measured the efficacy and symmetry of color pattern as a reproductive barrier in a non‐co‐mimic, possibly hybridizing pair of Heliconius species. We conducted pairwise experiments of preference where a group of males was presented to a conspecific and heterospecific female model made with real wings and free of chemical volatiles. We did not detect any indication of the expected use of cryptic recognition signals to mate choice in the intergeneric co‐mimic pair. Additionally, we detected an unexpected male preference for heterospecific female models between intrageneric co‐mimics towards the species with larger red patches, suggesting a supernormal stimulus based on a general preference for the red color. Finally, we found an asymmetry in the behavioral reproductive barrier between the non‐co‐mimic closely related species that also agrees with the hypothesis of a general preference for red and with an expected permeability of the reproductive barrier between them. Since the costs imposed by heterospecific courtships can limit the convergence of signaling phenotypes, our results contribute to explaining the maintenance of multiple aposematic color pattern between unpalatable and closely related sympatric Heliconius species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computer vision is widely used in fabric texture recognition. In this paper, a new method based on double-sided fusion of reflection image and transmission image is proposed for recognition and analysis of fabric texture. The yarn location is obtained through transmission image, and fabric texture is obtained through reflection image. The position information of weave floats obtained by gray projection on the transmission image is given to the reflection image for classification and color recognition of weave floats. In the stage of weave float classification, an improved KNN algorithm based on FCM is proposed. First, FCM is used to cluster the HOG features of the two types of floats respectively to obtain new cluster centers, and then KNN is used for classification to obtain the weave patterns. In the stage of color recognition, the K-means clustering algorithm is used on a single weave float to obtain the color pattern. Based on the two attributes of a single point obtained from the above two patterns, a system of bidirectional error correction is designed. Experimental results show that this method effectively improves the recognition accuracy of yarn-dyed fabrics which interlaced yarns are different colors without color and texture disturbed to the greatest extent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract A new species of Brachychalcinus is described from the rio Mapaoni, rio Jari basin, and the coastal rio Araguari, Amapá and Pará states, Brazil. The new species is distinguished from all congeners, except B. reisi, by possessing conspicuous longitudinal dark stripes across the body. It can be diagnosed from B. reisi by having longer predorsal and preanal spines, by having scales with few curved radii, and by having more scale rows between lateral line and midventral scale series. A single specimen from rio Tapajós (Pará, Brazil) bears all the diagnostic features of the new species and is herein tentatively identified as belonging to this taxon, extending its distribution to this river basin.

ObjectiveThis study aims to evaluate the diagnostic performance of quantitative shear wave elastography (SWE) and a new qualitative color pattern SWE for the differentiation of benign and malignant American College of Radiology Thyroid Imaging, Reporting, and Data System (ACR TI-RADS) 4 or 5 category thyroid nodules measuring ≤10 mm.Materials and methodsFrom May 2020 to July 2022, a total of 237 patients with 270 thyroid nodules were enrolled, and conventional ultrasound and SWE examinations were performed for each patient. Each ACR TI-RADS 4 or 5 category thyroid nodule measuring ≤10 mm was evaluated by quantitative SWE and a new qualitative color pattern SWE. The diagnostic performance of quantitative SWE parameters, the new qualitative color pattern SWE, and the combination of SWE with ACR TI-RADS, respectively, for the differentiation of benign and malignant ACR TI-RADS 4 or 5 category thyroid nodules measuring ≤10 mm was evaluated and compared.ResultsAmong 270 thyroid nodules in 237 patients, 72 (26.67%) thyroid nodules were benign and 198 (73.33%) thyroid nodules were malignant. The qualitative color pattern SWE showed better diagnostic performance than the quantitative SWE parameters. When combining the qualitative color pattern SWE with ACR TI-RADS scores, with the optimal cutoff value of the total points ≥8, the thyroid nodules were considered malignant. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and AUC were 89.90%, 56.94%, 81.11%, and 0.820 (95% CI: 0.768–0.864), respectively. Compared with using qualitative color pattern SWE alone, the combination of qualitative color pattern SWE and ACR TI-RADS had better diagnostic performance, which was significantly different (p < 0.05).ConclusionThe combination of qualitative SWE color patterns and ACR TI-RADS had high sensitivity and accuracy, which might be a convenient and useful method to differentiate benign and malignant ACR TI-RADS 4 or 5 category thyroid nodules measuring ≤10 mm. It would be helpful for the management of thyroid nodules and improving prognosis.

There are numerous examples of Batesian mimics that only imperfectly resemble their models. Given that inaccurate mimics are known to be predated more frequently than accurate ones, imperfect mimicry therefore poses something of a conundrum. One putative explanation, the relaxed selection hypothesis, predicts that when the cost of attacking a model is high relative to the benefit of consuming a mimic, selection against imperfect mimics will be relaxed, allowing mimics to be more imperfect for a given level of fitness. However, empirical support for this hypothesis is equivocal. Here, we report an experimental test of the relaxed selection hypothesis, in which human participants were tasked with discriminating between artificial stimuli representing models and mimics. In response to "attacking" a model (i.e. misclassifying it as palatable, or non-aversive) they received either a mild electric shock (high cost) or vibratory feedback (low cost). Consistent with the predictions of this hypothesis, we found that when the cost of attacking a model was high, mimetic phenotype could deviate more from the model (i.e. be more imperfect) for a given level of fitness than when the cost of attacking a model was low. Moreover, when the cost of attacking a model was high, participants showed an increased latency to attack. This finding shows that given sufficient costs, the relaxed selection hypothesis is a plausible explanation for the evolution of imperfect mimicry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on newly collected material from the Iraqi coast, the status of the common intertidal snapping shrimp, Alpheus lobidens De Haan, 1849 species complex, is discussed. Based on several morphological characteristics as well as the color pattern, the material examined herein strongly supports the validity of A. lobidens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Stictochironomus (Diptera: Chironomidae) has an almost worldwide distribution, with more than 30 species. However, species delimitation and identification based on the markings on the wings and legs are controversial and uncertain. In this study, we focused on color patterns to review the adults of the genus from China, and two new species (S. trifuscipes sp. nov. and S. quadrimaculatus sp. nov.) are described and figured. DNA barcodes can accurately separate the two new species with specific color patterns. However, heterospecific individuals form a monophyletic cluster in the phylogeny tree. For example, S. maculipennis (Meigen) and S. pictulus (Meigen), which have a lower interspecific genetic divergence, form a single clade. Sequences with the same species name but with high intraspecific distance form more than one phylogenetic clade, such as S. sticticus (Fabricius) of three clades, S. pictulus of four clades, S. akizukii (Tokunaga) and S. juncaii Qi, Shi, and Wang of two clades, might have potential cryptic species diversity. Species delimitation analysis using ASAP, PTP, and GMYC clearly delineated them as separate species. Consequently, color patterns are a good diagnostic characteristic for species delimitation in Stictochironomus. The distance-based analysis shows that a threshold of 4.5–7.7% is appropriate for species delimitation in Stictochironomus. Additionally, an updated key including color pattern variation for male adults of known Stictochironomus species from China is provided.

Based on newly collected material from the Iraqi coast, the status of the common intertidal snapping shrimp, Alpheus lobidens De Haan, 1849 species complex, is dis[1]cussed. Based on several morphological characteristics as well as the color pattern, the material examined herein strongly supports the validity of A. lobidens.

Age is an important parameter for the study of ecology and population dynamics. Current methodologies for age estimation in cetaceans generally involve invasive or postmortem techniques. They are not suitable for wild marine mammals with small populations. Our previous study shows that in Indo‐Pacific bottlenose dolphins, both the number and size of body speckles increase with age. We observed speckles of 41 known‐age individuals (28 females and 13 males) between the ages of 7 and 25 years using underwater video data. The ages of individuals were obtained from a long‐term identification survey since 1994. Here, we created an age‐estimation model using quantification theory type I analysis. The model estimated the age accurately from speckle observation (R2 = 0.77, standard deviation of 2.58 years). We clarified the age of 89 individuals (64% of 139 unknown age individuals) near Mikura Island. This is the first study to use a noninvasive age estimation method to statistically verify its accuracy and revealed the age of the majority of the population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the production mode of small-batch and multi-item, the recognition of yarn-dyed fabric patterns is a crucial task in the textile industry. In this article, an automatic recognition system based on pixel-level features is proposed to recognize the density, the weave pattern, and the color pattern. In this system, the fabric images are captured by a scanner. First, a method based on the Hough transform is used to correct the skew of the yarns, including warp and weft. Second, the yarns and nodes are located in the enhanced images with a brightness-projection method. The density can be calculated by using the results. Then, the type of each node is identified based on the boundary information. We can obtain the weave pattern after knowing the type of each node. Finally, the fuzzy C-means algorithm is used to determine the color of each node, and thus we obtain the color pattern of the yarn-dyed fabric. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed recognition system is effective for detecting the structural parameters of yarn-dyed fabric.

Simple Summary: Non-biting midges are the most widely distributed, and frequently the most abundant, insect family in freshwater environments. Species delimitation concerning color patterns and the shape or distribution of thorax pigmentation, wing spots, abdomen pigmentation, and leg pigmentation are disputable and unstable in the family. This research focuses on a genus that shares the general appearance of the hypopygium, but with variations in coloration of the antennae, thorax, wings, and legs. In this study, we analyzed collected species along with public sequences, resulting in a preliminary DNA library including 21 morphospecies. DNA barcodes can successfully delimit Microtendipes species and showed deep intraspecific divergence in some species. We also confirmed that color patterns can be important diagnostic characters. As a result of this analysis, five species new to science are identified and described, and an updated key to male adults of known Microtendipes species from China is provided. The genus Microtendipes Kieffer (Diptera: Chironomidae) has a nearly worldwide distribution, comprising more than 60 species, which are further divided into two species groups based on larval stage. However, species delimitation and identification among the adults of this genus are controversial and uncertain. For instance, previous studies have provided many synonymies based on conspecific color pattern variations in Microtendipes species. Here, we used DNA barcode data to address Microtendipes species delimitation as well as to test whether color pattern variations can be diagnostic characters for interspecific identification. The 151 DNA barcodes used, 51 of which were contributed by our laboratory, represent 21 morphospecies. Species with specific color patterns could be accurately separated based on DNA barcodes. Consequently, the color patterns of adult males could be important diagnostic characters. The average intraspecific and interspecific sequence divergences were 2.8% and 12.5%, respectively, and several species exhibited deep intraspecific divergences higher than 5%. Molecular operational taxonomic units (OTUs) ranged from 21 to 73, based on methods including phylogenetic trees, the assemble species by automatic partitioning method, the Poisson tree process (PTP), and the general mixed Yule-coalescent (GMYC) method. As a result of these analyses, five new species were recognized (M. baishanzuensis sp. nov., M. bimaculatus sp. nov., M. nigrithorax sp. nov., M. robustus sp. nov., and M. wuyiensis sp. nov.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenotypic dissimilarity does not always evolve in concert with genetic diversification, resulting in cryptic species complexes that represent a major challenge for documenting actual biodiversity. Resolving these complexes is of paramount importance. Herein, we tested whether Saron marmoratus (Olivier, 1811) and S. neglectus de Man, 1902, two coral reef-dwelling shrimp species distributed over contiguous biogeographic provinces in the Indo-West Pacific and crossing various biogeographic and phylogeographic breaks, are such cryptic species complexes, as indicated by their significant diversity of color patterns. Firstly, a principal component analysis using 19 morphological traits confirmed that S. marmoratus and S. neglectus were morphologically distinctive, however, failing to detect morphologically defined groups within each of these taxa. On the other hand, molecular phylogenetic analyses (nuclear Histone 3 and mitochondrial 16S RNA markers) demonstrated a total of five well-supported clades in these two taxa, with moderate to deep genetic divergence among them. Species delimitation approaches indicated at least 10 (and a maximum of 15) putative cryptic species in the S. marmoratus and S. neglectus species complexes. Furthermore, color patterns segregated most but not all cryptic lineages. Altogether, the information above demonstrates that S. marmoratus and S. neglectus represent two cryptic species complexes, which diversified in somewhat parallel ways. Additional integrative studies, as we have shown here, to reveal the extend and magnitude of cryptic species complexes in coral reefs, are warranted given the current acute biodiversity crisis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A unique combinatorial bioluminescence (BL) imaging system was developed for determining molecular events in mammalian cells with various colors and BL intensity patterns. This imaging system consists of one or multiple reporter luciferases and a series of novel coelenterazine (CTZ) analogues named "S-series". For this study, ten kinds of novel S-series CTZ analogues were synthesized and characterized concerning the BL intensities, spectra, colors, and specificity of various marine luciferases. The characterization revealed that the S-series CTZ analogues luminesce with blue-to-orange-colored BL spectra with marine luciferases, where the most red-shifted BL spectrum peaked at 583 nm. The colors completed a visible light color palette with those of our precedent C-series CTZ analogues. The synthesized substrates S1, S5, S6, and S7 were found to have a unique specificity with marine luciferases, such as R86SG, NanoLuc (shortly, NLuc), and ALuc16. They collectively showed unique BL intensity patterns to identify the marine luciferases together with colors. The marine luciferases, R86SG, NLuc, and ALuc16, were multiplexed into multi-reporter systems, the signals of which were quantitatively unmixed with the specific substrates. When the utility was applied to a single-chain molecular strain probe, the imaging system simultaneously reported three different optical indexes for a ligand, i.e., unique BL intensity and color patterns for identifying the reporters, together with the ligand-specific fold intensities in mammalian cells. This study directs a new combinatorial BL imaging system to specific image molecular events in mammalian cells with multiple optical indexes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foliar pigmentation patterns vary among plant species and growth conditions. In this study, we utilize hyperspectral imaging to assess foliar pigmentation in the bryophyte Marchantia polymorpha under nutrient stress and identify associated genetic factors. Using singular value decomposition (SVD) for feature selection, we quantitate color variations induced by deficiencies in phosphate, nitrate, magnesium, calcium, and iron. Pseudo-colored thallus images show that disrupting Mp WRKY10 causes irregular pigmentation with auronidin accumulation. Transcriptomic profiling shows that Mp WRKY10 regulates phenylpropanoid pathway enzymes and R2R3-MYB transcription factors during phosphate deficiency, with Mp MYB14 upregulation preceding pigment accumulation. Mp WRKY10 is downregulated in older, pigmented thalli under phosphate deficiency but maintained in young thalli, where it suppresses pigmentation genes. This downregulation is absent in pigmented thalli due to aging. Comparative transcriptome analysis suggests similar WRKY and MYB roles in nutrient response and pigmentation in red-leaf lettuce, alluding to conserved genetic factors controlling foliar pigmentation patterns under nutrient deficiency. [Display omitted] • A hyperspectral imaging method for foliar pigmentation in Marchantia polymorpha is developed • MpWRKY10 defines irregular pigmentation patterns under phosphate deficiency • MpWRKY10 plays a role in cooperating with R2R3-MYBs to regulate auronidin biosynthesis Krishnamoorthi et al. investigate foliar pigmentation in Marchantia polymorpha , utilizing hyperspectral imaging and singular value decomposition to assess pigmentation variations under nutrient stresses. Disruption of Mp WRKY10 leads to irregular pigmentation patterns due to auronidin accumulation, showing its central role in regulating phenylpropanoid metabolisms cooperatively with Mp MYB14 during phosphate deficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peanut seed tetrazolium test evaluation is usually by eye and a microscope. This method has a weaknesses in the accuracy of reading the color intensity, and is more subjective. The seeds was observed one by one so that the observation is not effective. To make observations more accurate, efficient, and effective, digital image processing can be applied to the seed viability evaluation. The method can be used was the detection of the Hue, Saturation, and Value color area in reading the red color pattern resulting from tetrazolium test.The result is the system can detect a maximum of 25 seeds with an operational time of 22-25 seconds in one detection. Seed classification is the seeds are predicted to normal, abnormal, and dead. The process of classifying seeds is identified based on the red color pattern resulting from the detection of the area of 4 HSV color ranges, namely red (175,100,20:180,255,255), pink (160, 100,20 : 174,150,255), white 1 (175,0,0 : 180,100,255), and white 2 (0,0,0 : 100,255,255). The results show that the accuracy of the system in reading the total number of seeds is 100% with the detection error of HSV color area is 1.54%.

Abstract Cambeva contains species with complex taxonomy or poorly delimitated in terms of morphology and geopraphic distribution. We conducted an extensive review of Cambeva populations from coastal drainages of Southern to Southeastern Brazil to evaluate species geographic limits with an integrative analysis including morphological and molecular data (COI). We test if two single-locus methods, Bayesian Poisson Tree Processes (bPTP) and Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC), are efficient to delimit species boundaries in Cambeva by the comparison with the diagnosable morphological units. Using GMYC, we also evaluated the combination of tree and molecular clock priors to reconstruct the input phylogeny and assessed how well the implemented model fitted our empirical data. Eleven species were identified using a morphological diagnosability criterion: Cambeva balios, C. barbosae, C. botuvera, C. cubataonis, C. davisi, C. guaraquessaba, C. iheringi, C. tupinamba, and C. zonata and two treated as undescribed species. In contrast with previous knowledge, many of them have wider distribution and high intraspecific variation. Species delimitation based on single-locus demonstrated incongruences between the methods and strongly differed from the morphological delimitation. These disagreements and the violation of the GMYC model suggest that a single-locus data is insufficient to delimit Cambeva species and the failure may be attributable to events of mitochondrial introgression and incomplete lineage sorting.

Identifying the relative importance of different mechanisms responsible for the emergence and maintenance of phenotypic diversity can be challenging, as multiple selective pressures and stochastic events are involved in these processes. Therefore, testing how environmental conditions shape the distribution of phenotypes can offer important insights on local adaptation, divergence, and speciation. The red‐yellow Müllerian mimicry ring of Heliconius butterflies exhibits a wide diversity of color patterns across the Neotropics and is involved in multiple hybrid zones, making it a powerful system to investigate environmental drivers of phenotypic distributions. Using the distantly related Heliconius erato and Heliconius melpomene co‐mimics and a multiscale distribution approach, we investigated whether distinct phenotypes of these species are associated with different environmental conditions. We show that Heliconius red‐yellow phenotypic distribution is strongly driven by environmental gradients (especially thermal and precipitation variables), but that phenotype and environment associations vary with spatial scale. While co‐mimics are usually predicted to occur in similar environments at large spatial scales, patterns at local scales are not always consistent (i.e., different variables are best predictors of phenotypic occurrence in different locations) or congruent (i.e., co‐mimics show distinct associations with environment). We suggest that large‐scale analyses are important for identifying how environmental factors shape broad mimetic phenotypic distributions, but that local studies are essential to understand the context‐dependent biotic, abiotic, and historical mechanisms driving finer‐scale phenotypic transitions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Color and pattern are often dynamic traits that change throughout an individual's lifetime. Still, long‐term shifts in coloration have received limited attention. Dendrobatid poison frogs are a classical system in the study of color and pattern evolution in which both sexual selection and predation avoidance are thought to drive the evolution of color and pattern at the population and species level. Here, we highlight an overlooked axis of pattern diversity, within individual variation, using three species in the genus Dendrobates. We collected longitudinal photographs of individuals at the National Aquarium to test the hypothesis that patterns shift predictably throughout the lifetimes of individual frogs. In all three species, we found a consistent reduction in the relative area of aposematic color as individuals aged and that the rate of pattern shift did not differ between the sexes. Consequently, within individual variation in coloration may confound inferences from ecological studies that inherently assume individual pattern is static. Finally, we note that using simple and noninvasive photography protocols, animals in zoos and aquaria have the potential to deepen our understanding of how color and pattern change throughout the lifetimes of a wide range of species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cambeva contains species with complex taxonomy or poorly delimitated in terms of morphology and geopraphic distribution. We conducted an extensive review of Cambeva populations from coastal drainages of Southern to Southeastern Brazil to evaluate species geographic limits with an integrative analysis including morphological and molecular data (COI). We test if two single-locus methods, Bayesian Poisson Tree Processes (bPTP) and Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC), are efficient to delimit species boundaries in Cambeva by the comparison with the diagnosable morphological units. Using GMYC, we also evaluated the combination of tree and molecular clock priors to reconstruct the input phylogeny and assessed how well the implemented model fitted our empirical data. Eleven species were identified using a morphological diagnosability criterion: Cambeva balios, C. barbosae, C. botuvera, C. cubataonis, C. davisi, C. guaraquessaba, C. iheringi, C. tupinamba, and C. zonata and two treated as undescribed species. In contrast with previous knowledge, many of them have wider distribution and high intraspecific variation. Species delimitation based on single-locus demonstrated incongruences between the methods and strongly differed from the morphological delimitation. These disagreements and the violation of the GMYC model suggest that a single-locus data is insufficient to delimit Cambeva species and the failure may be attributable to events of mitochondrial introgression and incomplete lineage sorting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Diverse butterfly wing color patterns are evolutionary products in response to environmental changes in the past. Environmental stress, such as temperature shock, is known to induce color pattern modifications in various butterfly species, and this phenotypic plasticity plays an important role in color pattern evolution. However, the potential contributions of phenotypic plasticity to mimicry evolution have not been evaluated. Here, we focused on the swallowtail butterfly Papilio polytes, which has nonmimetic and mimetic forms in females, to examine its plastic phenotypes. Cold shock and heat shock treatments in the nonmimetic form induced color pattern modifications that were partly similar to those of the mimetic form, and nonmimetic females were more sensitive than males and mimetic females. These results suggest that phenotypic plasticity in nonmimetic females might have provided a basis of natural selection for mimetic color patterns during evolution. Butterfly wing color patterns are sensitive to environmental stress, such as temperature shock, and this phenotypic plasticity plays an important role in color pattern evolution. However, the potential contributions of phenotypic plasticity to mimicry evolution have not been evaluated. Here, we focused on the swallowtail butterfly Papilio polytes, which has nonmimetic and mimetic forms in females, to examine its plastic phenotypes. In the nonmimetic form, medial white spots and submarginal reddish spots in the ventral hindwings were enlarged by cold shock but were mostly reduced in size by heat shock. These temperature-shock-induced color pattern modifications were partly similar to mimetic color patterns, and nonmimetic females were more sensitive than males and mimetic females. Unexpectedly, injection of tungstate, a known modification inducer in nymphalid and lycaenid butterflies, did not induce any modification, but fluorescent brightener 28, another inducer discovered recently, induced unique modifications. These results suggest that phenotypic plasticity in nonmimetic females might have provided a basis of natural selection for mimetic color patterns during evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Textile pattern recognition and recoloring separates a fabric image into different color regions and changes colors of the regions in the fabric image. A new method for textile pattern recognition and recoloring is proposed. The proposed method consists of two main steps. First, the binary images are recognized through a series of image enhancement techniques, such as the color‐encoding algorithm, the edge‐based filtering algorithm, and a multiphase image segmentation model. Second, the regions of interest are recolored with different recoloring methods based on intrinsic image decomposition and grayscale image recoloring. Experimental results and comparisons demonstrate that the main disadvantages and difficulties of using palette‐based methods in textile pattern recoloring have been overcome by the proposed method. The proposed method is effective in inhibiting tiny region effects and preserving the geometry structures of textile patterns. It can be applied to recognize and recolor different kinds of fabric images, including the Jacquard, the embroidered, and the printed fabric images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is an important species in aquaculture and an excellent model fish for studying teleost color patterns. Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor a (csf1ra) is critical for xanthophores development and body color formation in zebrafish and guppy. In this study, we established csf1ra mutant lines with two different targets by CRISPR/Cas9 in Nile tilapia. Unlike the wild type fish (WT) with vertical bars, the homozygous mutants showed two different color patterns, either uniformly gray (GT) or gray with black tail (BT). Compared with WT, the mutants had fewer melanophores, a few xanthophores and no erythrophores. Increased numbers of melanophores were observed in the tail of BT mutants. However, the establishment of early embryonic pigment cell precursors and the appearance of melanophores on the body were independent of csf1ra. In contrast, the appearance of xanthophores on the body and the formation of the vertical bar pattern dependent on the late metamorphic melanophores required csf1ra. The deletion of xanthophores and erythrophores caused by csf1ra mutation changed the body color pattern of Nile tilapia. These results demonstrated that csf1ra activity is essential for the development of erythrophores, late developing xanthophores and late metamorphic melanophores. These mutants provided good models for analyzing the genetic basis of tilapia body color pattern formation. Our study may help deepen the understanding of the formation of fish body color pattern, especially for cichlids with vertical bars. In addition, the mutants might be developed as ornamental fish (BT) or new strains for aquaculture.

The genus Microtendipes Kieffer (Diptera: Chironomidae) has a nearly worldwide distribution, comprising more than 60 species, which are further divided into two species groups based on larval stage. However, species delimitation and identification among the adults of this genus are controversial and uncertain. For instance, previous studies have provided many synonymies based on conspecific color pattern variations in Microtendipes species. Here, we used DNA barcode data to address Microtendipes species delimitation as well as to test whether color pattern variations can be diagnostic characters for interspecific identification. The 151 DNA barcodes used, 51 of which were contributed by our laboratory, represent 21 morphospecies. Species with specific color patterns could be accurately separated based on DNA barcodes. Consequently, the color patterns of adult males could be important diagnostic characters. The average intraspecific and interspecific sequence divergences were 2.8% and 12.5%, respectively, and several species exhibited deep intraspecific divergences higher than 5%. Molecular operational taxonomic units (OTUs) ranged from 21 to 73, based on methods including phylogenetic trees, the assemble species by automatic partitioning method, the Poisson tree process (PTP), and the general mixed Yule-coalescent (GMYC) method. As a result of these analyses, five new species were recognized (M. baishanzuensis sp. nov., M. bimaculatus sp. nov., M. nigrithorax sp. nov., M. robustus sp. nov., and M. wuyiensis sp. nov.).

A unique combinatorial bioluminescence (BL) imaging system was developed for determining molecular events in mammalian cells with various colors and BL intensity patterns. This imaging system consists of one or multiple reporter luciferases and a series of novel coelenterazine (CTZ) analogues named “S-series”. For this study, ten kinds of novel S-series CTZ analogues were synthesized and characterized concerning the BL intensities, spectra, colors, and specificity of various marine luciferases. The characterization revealed that the S-series CTZ analogues luminesce with blue-to-orange-colored BL spectra with marine luciferases, where the most red-shifted BL spectrum peaked at 583 nm. The colors completed a visible light color palette with those of our precedent C-series CTZ analogues. The synthesized substrates S1, S5, S6, and S7 were found to have a unique specificity with marine luciferases, such as R86SG, NanoLuc (shortly, NLuc), and ALuc16. They collectively showed unique BL intensity patterns to identify the marine luciferases together with colors. The marine luciferases, R86SG, NLuc, and ALuc16, were multiplexed into multi-reporter systems, the signals of which were quantitatively unmixed with the specific substrates. When the utility was applied to a single-chain molecular strain probe, the imaging system simultaneously reported three different optical indexes for a ligand, i.e., unique BL intensity and color patterns for identifying the reporters, together with the ligand-specific fold intensities in mammalian cells. This study directs a new combinatorial BL imaging system to specific image molecular events in mammalian cells with multiple optical indexes.

Age estimating wild dolphins using noninvasive methods will improve our understanding of their ontogeny. Speckles appear on the ventral through to the lateral areas of Indo‐Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) as they age. Age‐related changes in the speckle density and shape were examined using type classification. Speckles first appeared on the ventral area of the genital area at approximately 6.5 years. They increased in two specific directions, from the genital area to the jaw and from the ventral side to the lateral side. The speckle shape changed with aging from a dot‐shape to oblong. Individuals aged over 35 years possessed more speckles than those aged 24–26 years. The oldest age category of dolphins in this study was over 35 years. The speckling area similarly increased with age for all individuals. Therefore, the results suggest that speckle condition can be used to estimate age. The relationship between speckling area and age showed no significant sexual dimorphism except near the genital slit area. There was no speckle area around the genital slit which differed in shape between the sexes. Therefore, speckle patch shape may be a useful sex confirmation tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The color pattern of insects is one of the most diverse adaptive evolutionary phenotypes. However, the molecular regulation of this color pattern is not fully understood. In this study, we found that the transcription factor Bm-mamo is responsible for black dilute ( bd ) allele mutations in the silkworm. Bm-mamo belongs to the BTB zinc finger family and is orthologous to mamo in Drosophila melanogaster . This gene has a conserved function in gamete production in Drosophila and silkworms and has evolved a pleiotropic function in the regulation of color patterns in caterpillars. Using RNAi and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) technology, we showed that Bm-mamo is a repressor of dark melanin patterns in the larval epidermis. Using in vitro binding assays and gene expression profiling in wild-type and mutant larvae, we also showed that Bm-mamo likely regulates the expression of related pigment synthesis and cuticular protein genes in a coordinated manner to mediate its role in color pattern formation. This mechanism is consistent with the dual role of this transcription factor in regulating both the structure and shape of the cuticle and the pigments that are embedded within it. This study provides new insight into the regulation of color patterns as well as into the construction of more complex epidermal features in some insects., Competing Interests: SW, XT, CP, JL, CZ, KL, CL, XD, XD, YL, HH, DT, FD No competing interests declared, (© 2023, Wu et al.)

The famously diverse body coloration of cichlid fish serves communicative functions in mating and social interactions including competition for resources. Here, we examined the effects of a color pattern trait—the width of a yellow bar on a black body—on territorial competition in males and females of a color variant ("Ikola") of the Lake Tanganyika cichlid Tropheus. First, measuring integumentary carotenoid concentrations in the yellow and black body regions, we established that wider yellow bars require more carotenoids allocated to body coloration. However, we also detected high carotenoid concentrations in the black body regions (> 100 µg/g fresh skin), raising questions about the function of non-displayed integumentary carotenoids. Behavioral experiments showed that fish with wider bars were quicker to explore an unfamiliar area of the tank. In experiments including presentations of fish dummies, the bar width of 'territorial' dummies had no effect on the latency time which test fish took to intrude into the dummies' territories. However, male test fish performed fewer aggressive acts against wide-barred than against narrow-barred dummy competitors. Our results suggest that intimidation by wide bars as well as correlations between bar width and explorative behavior may contribute to mediating success in territorial Tropheus "Ikola". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal color patterns are widely studied in ecology, evolution, and through mathematical modeling. Patterns may vary among distinct body parts such as the head, trunk or tail. As large amounts of photographic data is becoming more easily available, there is a growing need for general quantitative methods for capturing and analyzing the full complexity and details of pattern variation. Detailed information on variation in color pattern elements is necessary to understand how patterns are produced and established during development, and which evolutionary forces may constrain such a variation. Here, we develop an approach to capture and analyze variation in melanistic color pattern elements in leopard geckos. We use this data to study the variation among different body parts of leopard geckos and to draw inferences about their development. We compare patterns using 14 different indices such as the ratio of melanistic versus total area, the ellipticity of spots, and the size of spots and use these to define a composite distance between two patterns. Pattern presence/absence among the different body parts indicates a clear pathway of pattern establishment from the head to the back legs. Together with weak within-individual correlation between leg patterns and main body patterns, this suggests that pattern establishment in the head and tail may be independent from the rest of the body. We found that patterns vary greatest in size and density of the spots among body parts and individuals, but little in their average shapes. We also found a correlation between the melanistic patterns of the two front legs, as well as the two back legs, and also between the head, tail and trunk, especially for the density and size of the spots, but not their shape or inter-spot distance. Our data collection and analysis approach can be applied to other organisms to study variation in color patterns between body parts and to address questions on pattern formation and establishment in animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Color and color pattern are critical for animal camouflage, reproduction, and defense. Few studies, however, have attempted to identify candidate genes for color and color pattern in squamate reptiles, a colorful group with over 10,000 species. We used comparative transcriptomic analyses between white, orange, and yellow skin in a color-polymorphic species of anole lizard to 1) identify candidate color and color-pattern genes in squamates and 2) assess if squamates share an underlying genetic basis for color and color pattern variation with other vertebrates. Squamates have three types of chromatophores that determine color pattern: guanine-filled iridophores, carotenoid- or pteridine-filled xanthophores/erythrophores, and melanin-filled melanophores. We identified 13 best candidate squamate color and color-pattern genes shared with other vertebrates: six genes linked to pigment synthesis pathways, and seven genes linked to chromatophore development and maintenance. In comparisons of expression profiles between pigment-rich and white skin, pigment-rich skin upregulated the pteridine pathway as well as xanthophore/erythrophore development and maintenance genes; in comparisons between orange and yellow skin, orange skin upregulated the pteridine and carotenoid pathways as well as melanophore maintenance genes. Our results corroborate the predictions that squamates can produce similar colors using distinct color-reflecting molecules, and that both color and color-pattern genes are likely conserved across vertebrates. Furthermore, this study provides a concise list of candidate genes for future functional verification, representing a first step in determining the genetic basis of color and color pattern in anoles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal color patterns are widely studied in ecology, evolution, and through mathematical modeling. Patterns may vary among distinct body parts such as the head, trunk or tail. As large amounts of photographic data is becoming more easily available, there is a growing need for general quantitative methods for capturing and analyzing the full complexity and details of pattern variation. Detailed information on variation in color pattern elements is necessary to understand how patterns are produced and established during development, and which evolutionary forces may constrain such a variation. Here, we develop an approach to capture and analyze variation in melanistic color pattern elements in leopard geckos. We use this data to study the variation among different body parts of leopard geckos and to draw inferences about their development. We compare patterns using 14 different indices such as the ratio of melanistic versus total area, the ellipticity of spots, and the size of spots and use these to define a composite distance between two patterns. Pattern presence/absence among the different body parts indicates a clear pathway of pattern establishment from the head to the back legs. Together with weak within-individual correlation between leg patterns and main body patterns, this suggests that pattern establishment in the head and tail may be independent from the rest of the body. We found that patterns vary greatest in size and density of the spots among body parts and individuals, but little in their average shapes. We also found a correlation between the melanistic patterns of the two front legs, as well as the two back legs, and also between the head, tail and trunk, especially for the density and size of the spots, but not their shape or inter-spot distance. Our data collection and analysis approach can be applied to other organisms to study variation in color patterns between body parts and to address questions on pattern formation and establishment in animals.

Animal pigment patterns play important roles in behavior and, in many species, red coloration serves as an honest signal of individual quality in mate choice. Among Danio fishes, some species develop erythrophores, pigment cells that contain red ketocarotenoids, whereas other species, like zebrafish (D. rerio) only have yellow xanthophores. Here, we use pearl danio (D. albolineatus) to assess the developmental origin of erythrophores and their mechanisms of differentiation. We show that erythrophores in the fin of D. albolineatus share a common progenitor with xanthophores and maintain plasticity in cell fate even after differentiation. We further identify the predominant ketocarotenoids that confer red coloration to erythrophores and use reverse genetics to pinpoint genes required for the differentiation and maintenance of these cells. Our analyses are a first step toward defining the mechanisms underlying the development of erythrophore-mediated red coloration in Danio and reveal striking parallels with the mechanism of red coloration in birds.

Visual signaling in animals can serve many uses, including predator deterrence and mate attraction. In many cases, signals used to advertise unprofitability to predators are also used for intraspecific communication. Although aposematism and mate choice are significant forces driving the evolution of many animal phenotypes, the interplay between relevant visual signals remains little explored. Here, we address this question in the aposematic passion-vine butterfly Heliconius erato by using color- and pattern-manipulated models to test the contributions of different visual features to both mate choice and warning coloration. We found that the relative effectiveness of a model at escaping predation was correlated with its effectiveness at inducing mating behavior, and in both cases wing color was more predictive of presumptive fitness benefits than wing pattern. Overall, however, a combination of the natural (local) color and pattern was most successful for both predator deterrence and mate attraction. By exploring the relative contributions of color versus pattern composition in predation and mate preference studies, we have shown how both natural and sexual selection may work in parallel to drive the evolution of specific animal color patterns.

Butterfly wing color patterns are sensitive to environmental stress, such as temperature shock, and this phenotypic plasticity plays an important role in color pattern evolution. However, the potential contributions of phenotypic plasticity to mimicry evolution have not been evaluated. Here, we focused on the swallowtail butterfly Papilio polytes, which has nonmimetic and mimetic forms in females, to examine its plastic phenotypes. In the nonmimetic form, medial white spots and submarginal reddish spots in the ventral hindwings were enlarged by cold shock but were mostly reduced in size by heat shock. These temperature-shock-induced color pattern modifications were partly similar to mimetic color patterns, and nonmimetic females were more sensitive than males and mimetic females. Unexpectedly, injection of tungstate, a known modification inducer in nymphalid and lycaenid butterflies, did not induce any modification, but fluorescent brightener 28, another inducer discovered recently, induced unique modifications. These results suggest that phenotypic plasticity in nonmimetic females might have provided a basis of natural selection for mimetic color patterns during evolution.