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The didactic class is a pedagogical tool meant to increase classroom interactivity by encouraging student discussion of real-life cases in connection with theory. This paper evaluates the pedagogical impact of using a one-off didactic class where an external expert is brought in to discuss how to relate a cognitive psychology course's content to real-life problems. Using a mixed-methods approach, we measure the undergraduate students' sense of conceptual understanding, their perspective on applying cognitive sciences, their sense of belonging to the department, and their motivation to work. Students' sense of understanding and their perspective in applying cognitive sciences to real-world problems significantly increased after this class. However, we found no significant differences in their sense of belonging to the department or their motivation to study. This suggests didactic classes may further course-specific content but do not change broader aspects of motivation or belonging. The qualitative interviews support the quantitative results. Students reported that the didactic class made them think laterally about content from other modules and how they could apply theoretical insights to real-world problems, which boosted confidence. Students reported great satisfaction with the didactic class. Of course, the speaker must be relevant to the course content, and students should feel empowered and able to speak in class. However, these are practical concerns that should not discourage lecturers from exploring didactic classes as a fun and instructive tool that has significant pedagogical benefits.

Introduction: Cognitive psychology courses are rich in content that can be useful to broad audiences. Much of the foundational research presented in course texts is conducted in highly constrained laboratory settings, making the concepts difficult to apply or use in the real world. Statement of the Problem: Students in cognitive psychology classes may not readily notice practical applications for the content. Standard assessments (e.g. written research papers) fail to capture the real-world applications of cognitive phenomena. Literature Review: Using an applied framework can motivate engagement in cognition. The use of an Unessay project in undergraduate cognitive psychology courses requires students to present a key construct in any format except an essay. Unessay projects originated in the humanities, and are an excellent fit for psychology. Teaching Implications: The Unessay is a useful vehicle for identifying and presenting the application of a cognitive construct in the real world. Students are required to convey that information in a creative, non-essay format. Instructions, a rubric and examples are provided. Conclusion: The Unessay is a novel approach to a course project in cognitive psychology that can motivate student interest while aligning with several APA outcomes for psychology majors.

This review aims to systematically summarize existing evidence to determine the effectiveness of cognitive-based interventions (CBIs) on psychological health and well-being among parents of children with developmental disabilities (DD). Six databases were searched to identify eligible randomized controlled trials (RCTs) from their inception to April 2023. The revised Cochrane Risk of Bias tool for RCTs was applied to assess the risk of bias and the certainty of evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation. Meta-analyses were conducted using a random-effects model. Twenty-five RCTs involving 1915 participants were identified. The results indicated that CBIs reduced parental stress levels (Hedges' g = - 0.69), depressive symptoms (g = - 0.95), anxiety levels (g = - 0.78), and parental distress (g = - 0.29), and improved parental well-being (g = 0.62) and parent-child relationships (g = 0.43) postintervention compared with the active/inactive control groups. Subgroup analysis of the effectiveness of interventions using mindfulness-based interventions and cognitive behavioural therapy showed positive effects. The favourable intervention duration and participant targets were also identified in this review. Furthermore, the effects of CBIs were impacted by the different types of DD among the children. This review highlighted the positive effects of CBIs on parental stress levels, depressive symptoms, anxiety levels, parental distress levels, parental well-being levels, and parent-child relationships. Future well-designed RCTs are needed to further investigate the effects of MBIs and CBT interventions on children with DD and their parents, as well as the factors and mechanisms of action affecting the efficacy of these interventions.

Our mental representation of the infinite has received little research attention in cognitive psychology. In countably infinite sets, the infinity symbol (8) is presumed to be perceived as larger than any finite natural number. The present study sought to explore if the infinity symbol is processed as "larger than" natural numbers, and, if so, whether it is associated with the special status of "the largest." In a series of four experiments (N = 40, 20, 20, and 40, respectively), participants performed numerical and physical comparisons of the infinity symbol against single- and multidigit numbers. Overall, numerical comparisons yielded slower responses for comparisons between infinity and a number than for comparisons between two numbers. Furthermore, distance-like effects were obtained for comparisons to infinity, suggesting the infinity symbol was treated as larger than all numbers presented. Importantly, however, physical comparisons revealed a normal size congruity effect for comparisons of infinity and single digits, but a reversed effect for comparisons of infinity and multidigit numbers, suggesting that the infinity symbol was automatically processed as smaller than multidigit numbers. These novel findings reveal limitations in abstracting the meanings of infinity from its symbol, indicating that the infinity symbol is not perceived as "the largest" and can be misconceived as a "number" mapped onto the numerical magnitude system. More generally, the results seem to reflect a crude, automatic evaluation of numerical magnitude based on the physical magnitude of the stimuli, namely, their overall length and the number of symbols of which they are comprised.

Background: Cognitive psychology is challenging for both teachers and learners due to the abstract and complex nature of mental processes and variation in student motivation. Objective: To test the effectiveness of an approach that seeks to motivate students to engage and successfully complete a cognitive psychology course by highlighting transferrable skills. Method: A cognitive psychology course was redesigned to emphasize the transferability of skills. It involved providing students with scaffolded assessments, just-in-time learning, and drawing explicit connections between knowledge, skill development, and real-world applications. Results: Comparison of student performance before and after course modifications showed a significant increase in learning outcomes, especially for students at the lower end of the performance spectrum. Conclusion: A program of scaffolded assessment with just-in-time skills reinforcement and explicit discussion of the broader application of those skills is an effective approach to teaching cognitive psychology. Teaching implications: This program produced a reliable improvement in learning outcomes in a course with a high level of theoretical and abstract content. The improvement was most noticeable in lower achieving students; however, all students benefit from a better developed transferable skill base and an awareness that can be used to articulate skills to potential employers.

Accurate measurement of wisdom is the cornerstone of wisdom research. To provide a representative reference for the reliability level and moderating factors of various wisdom self-rating scales, we carried out a reliability generalization meta-analysis of Chinese and English references retrieved from 2004 to 2023. A total of 149 articles were included, as well as seven wisdom self-rating scales. The results showed that all seven wisdom self-rating scales had good internal consistency reliability. The reliability of the original scale was higher than that of the simplified version, and the reliability of the total of the original scale was higher than those of each dimension. Future research should avoid "reliability introduction," and rather focus on cross-cultural translation of the wisdom scale, selecting the most appropriate measurement tool for the particular field of wisdom, and strengthen theoretical interpretations by connotation and structure of wisdom itself.

Undergraduate positive psychology courses are typically semester-long educational courses or units of study dedicated to providing students with an understanding of the science of wellbeing and the factors contributing to optimal human functioning. A number of universities around the world offer positive psychology courses, yet little is known about students' perspectives of these courses. Evaluating students' perspectives may enable educators to modify courses to better address students' needs, which in turn, may increase engagement with, and learning in these courses. This study provides an in-depth account of students' perspectives on a positive psychology course offered at an Australian university. After completing the course, nine students participated in focus groups to discuss their experiences. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, three superordinate categories (and 14 subcategories) were identified, namely, interest in wellbeing, beneficial to wellbeing, and balancing competing needs. Participants expressed interest in learning about wellbeing, experienced the course as beneficial for wellbeing, and recognised several challenges in delivering course content. The richness of these results supports the utility of assessing and evaluating students' perspectives using a qualitative approach, and the emerging themes provide insights into the aspects of positive psychology courses more broadly that may enhance students' learning and wellbeing.

Chance favors the prepared mind, said Louis Pasteur. Sometimes, significant breakthroughs occur when we creatively integrate new information, leading to a creative insight or an Aha! moment, while at other times when we fail to use a clue, we remain stuck in our habitual thinking patterns. In this study, we hypothesized that the brain's transient oscillatory states would characterize its receptivity or preparedness for such insights. We conducted a real-time brain-state-dependent cognitive stimulation experiment during insightful problem-solving. We showed that participants were more successful in utilizing clues and experienced more Aha responses when these clues were presented at the spontaneously up-regulated state of right temporal alpha oscillation, as opposed to the down-regulated state. Furthermore, we observed an inverse correlation between the coupling of alpha oscillation phase and gamma oscillation power and the frequency of insight. These results shed light on the neural mechanism underpinning the brain's receptivity to integrate upcoming semantic information, emphasizing the pivotal role of dynamical brain oscillations in the Aha! experience.

To explain successful subject matter learning with digital tools, the specification of mediating cognitive processes is crucial for any empirical investigation. We introduce a cognitive process framework for the mechanisms of learning with digital tools (CoDiL) that combines core ideas from the psychology of instruction (utilization-of-learning-opportunity framework), cognitive psychology (knowledge-learning-instruction framework), and domain-specific research on learning and instruction. This synthesizing framework can be used to theoretically ground, firstly, the design of digital tools for learning, and secondly, the empirical analysis of students' learning activities in digitally enriched educational settings via the analysis of specific student-tool interactions.

There is a vast literature on "executive functioning," or the control of one's thoughts and actions in pursuit of a goal. This broad construct is conceptualized as comprising multiple executive functions (EFs) that support academic achievement and other important life outcomes. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding what, exactly, these core EFs are. This commentary briefly reviews a few dominant models of EFs in developmental and cognitive psychology and outlines issues to be addressed; it then illustrates how insights from neuroscience could help us eliminate redundant terminology and identify EFs that have been largely overlooked. Reaching a consensus regarding the core set of EFs will inform efforts to scaffold EF development and improve educational outcomes.

In service of the goal of examining how cognitive science can facilitate human-computer interactions in complex systems, we explore how cognitive psychology research might help educators better utilize artificial intelligence and AI supported tools as facilitatory to learning, rather than see these emerging technologies as a threat. We also aim to provide historical perspective, both on how automation and technology has generated unnecessary apprehension over time, and how generative AI technologies such as ChatGPT are a product of the discipline of cognitive science. We introduce a model for how higher education instruction can adapt to the age of AI by fully capitalizing on the role that metacognition knowledge and skills play in determining learning effectiveness. Finally, we urge educators to consider how AI can be seen as a critical collaborator to be utilized in our efforts to educate around the critical workforce skills of effective communication and collaboration.

Unlike traditional methods, the communicative approaches draw on implicit and incidental ways of learning and contextualised exercises of grammar which improve language performance in terms of fluency and communicative competence. However, the discursive plan implies the use of high-level units of knowledge and the automatization of low-level knowledge is not ensured. Although learners' production achieves success in terms of communicative skills, their competence in terms of accuracy is usually unsatisfactory. The benefits of explicit grammar teaching are another issue that concerns teachers and that needs more evidence. Therefore, a need exists to study which approach supports the automatization of low-level information, in a short class time (30-40 min). The first purpose of this study is to better understand the cognitive processes that lead to the automatization of forms, the second purpose is to know whether explicit grammar teaching promotes the automatization of forms. When first reviewing the literature on cognitive psychology and automatization, the focus was limited to how automaticity is brought about. Next, the main assumptions of Adaptative Control of Though (ACT*) and Instance Theories are presented. The reviewed research results confirmed the effectiveness of the explicit teaching of rules and the importance of practice and attention in the language learning process. In the conclusion, there are some recommendations that may be useful for language teachers.

In the present study, we examined how the relevance of potentially distracting information modulates the interplay of target and distractor processing in conflict tasks. Specifically, we manipulated the degree to which distracting information is relevant for performing the overall task by varying the proportion of trials in which a response to the distractor(s) (Experiments 1a and 1b: location in a Simon task; Experiment 2: flankers in an Eriksen flanker task) instead of to the target was required. Across all experiments, the congruency effect on mean RT was larger with the increasing relevance of the distractor(s). Critically, the slopes of the delta plot were more strongly increasing when the distractors were potentially relevant (as opposed to completely irrelevant), suggesting that cognitive control affects the timing of suppressing distractor-based activation. In addition, delta plot and diffusion model analyses revealed that the strength of suppressing distractor processing and the efficiency of target processing were enhanced when the distractors were less relevant. Overall, the present study dissociated multiple and time-dependent adjustments of control processes (i.e., target processing enhancement plus timing and strength of distractor suppression) in environments that encourage either a more stable or more flexible processing mode.

This article focuses on an approach to the concept of historical time in early childhood education through the lens of cognitive psychology. It consists of three parts: (1) theoretical approaches, inspired by three broad scientific fields -- cognitive psychology, pedagogy and history; (2) the presentation of educational examples, formed by empirical data and case studies; and (3) conclusions. Its main purpose is to combine theoretical approaches and findings from contemporary scientific research with empirical data from the educational process, so as to argue that kindergarten children can represent and be taught the concept of historical time and, with its help, can be introduced to history education.

The objectives of this research on Cognitive Technology for Academic Counselling in the New Normal were (1) to design an architecture of cognitive technology for academic counselling in the new normal, (2) to develop a system of cognitive technology for academic counselling in the new normal, (3) to assess the academic performance of students using cognitive technology for academic counselling in the new normal, and (4) to assess the satisfaction of students using cognitive technology for academic counselling in the new normal. The sample group in this study were 30 students at a secondary school level 1 from Ongkharak Demonstration School, Srinakharinwirot University, in the 2021 academic year. The students were enrolled on a course in Design and Technology and selected by multistage randomization, i.e. 1) group randomization and, 2) simple random sampling. The research tools were, (1) a system of cognitive technology for academic counselling in the new normal, (2) a performance assessment form, (3) a test and worksheets on design and technology, and (4) a satisfaction assessment form. The research results found: (1) learning outcomes after using the system were significantly better than before at the .01 level, and (2) the overall satisfaction of students using cognitive technology for academic counselling in the new normal was at the highest level (Mean = 4.50, S.D. = 0.64).

Since the 1920s, colleges have offered how-to-study courses orientating students to the rituals of academic study. We present an historical overview of these courses by highlighting major developments including the emergence of courses that evolved from skill-based curriculum underpinned by behaviorism to strategy-based curriculum underpinned by cognitive psychology and self-regulation theories. We also focus on two unique common iterations of course categories offered today: first-year seminars, which were re-envisioned by the University of South Carolina in the 1970s, and theory-based learning strategy courses, often referred to as learning frameworks courses, which emerged in the 1970s at two Texas universities.

The present study examined the effect of different types of retrieval practice on reading comprehension across levels of thinking and retention interval in a classroom setting. One hundred undergraduates divided into two retention interval groups (short- and long-retention interval) were asked to read a passage on a topic in Cognitive Psychology and were then required to engage in a retrieval practice learning strategy using the two types of question format (production test and recognition test) and different levels of thinking (lower-order thinking and higher-order thinking). A three-way mixed ANOVA statistical test was used to analyse the data and found no significant differences in reading comprehension across the different types of retrieval practice, suggesting that the performance when using the recognition test is equivalent to when using the production test. The difference in reading comprehension between the different types of retention interval also was not observed, indicating that students in the short-retention interval group retained just as much information as those in the long-retention interval group. Additionally, the present study observed a significant difference in students' reading comprehension between different levels of thinking, signifying that the students' performance for the lower-level thinking questions was better than that for the higher-level thinking questions. The present finding contributed to the existing body of knowledge in which it suggested that the performance in reading comprehension when using a recognition test, particularly a well-constructed one, with competitive alternatives was equivalent to when using a production test.

Contribution: This article presents evidence that electrical engineering, computer science, and data science students, participating in introduction to machine learning (ML) courses, fail to interpret the performance of ML algorithms correctly, since they fail to consider the application domain. This phenomenon is referred to as the domain neglect bias and is discussed in this article from the cognitive psychology perspective. Background: ML algorithms are common components in electrical engineering, computer science, and data science curricula. Learning ML is challenging not only due to its complex mathematical and algorithmic aspects, but also due to: (1) the complexity of using these algorithms in the context of real-life situations correctly and (2) the comprehension of related social and ethical issues. Research Question: To what extent do students fail to correctly interpret the performance of ML algorithms due to the domain neglect bias and how can this bias be explained? Methodology: A questionnaire containing two questions was designed, in which the participants were asked to compare the performance of ML algorithms in the contexts of different application domains. The questions were designed to trigger the domain neglect bias which in turn, allowed quantification of its prevalence. Findings: One third of the students failed to recognize the outperforming ML algorithm due to the domain neglect bias. Educators should note this bias and develop new pedagogical methods for teaching ML performance in order to mitigate the bias.

In the standard Proportion-Congruent (PC) paradigm, performance is compared between a list containing mostly congruent (MC) stimuli (e.g., the word RED in the color red in the Stroop task; Stroop, 1935) and a list containing mostly incongruent (MI) stimuli (e.g., the word BLUE in red). The PC effect, the finding that the congruency effect (i.e., the latency difference between incongruent and congruent stimuli) is typically larger in an MC list, has been interpreted by the popular conflict-monitoring account (Botvinick et al., 2001) as reflecting a proactive process whereby attention to task-relevant information is adapted based on how frequently conflict from task-irrelevant information arises. Recently, however, alternative accounts of the PC effect have emerged that assume either that the PC effect reflects processes other than proactive conflict adaptation (e.g., stimulus-response contingency learning) or that proactive conflict adaptation is only engaged as a last resort (e.g., when contingency learning cannot be used to minimize interference). We examined these ideas in three experiments in which proactive conflict adaptation could be evaluated independently from processes that are normally confounded with it in the PC paradigm, while still allowing those processes, particularly contingency learning, to be used to minimize interference. Consistent with the conflict-monitoring account of the PC effect, but inconsistent with all the alternative accounts of the PC effect, evidence for proactive conflict adaptation emerged in all experiments. Although multiple processes may be engaged in the PC paradigm, this paradigm remains a valid tool for examining proactive conflict adaptation, its typical use.

The article deals with the analysis of literary narrative where a possible unreal fictional world and a possible real fictional world usually coexist. When the norms of life plausibility are consciously violated, the real and the unreal possible worlds are emphatically opposed. Hence, their certain aspects are depicted in a fantastically exaggerated form. The interaction of possible worlds in a literary narrative destroys the stereotypes of the reader's perception. It can occur in different planes: structural (a shift of plot elements of the story, transformation, unusual, sharp turns of the borrowed plot, violations of a plotline); fictional (a combination of real and fantastic features in one image); temporal (violations of the chronological flow of time, a shift of time flow); spatial (expansion or contraction of space, magical spatial formations, displacements, deformations). By their nature, the interaction of different possible worlds can be continuous, partial, and fragmentary; resulting from their boundaries may overlap or be violated (entirely or partially). The continuous interaction of different possible worlds, destruction of their borders, although they do not disappear completely, make them largely blurred, interpenetrating each other. In the case of partial interaction of possible worlds, their boundaries intersect. In the case of fragmentary interaction of possible worlds, their common points are slightly visible, for example, only the borrowed title of a literary work or a character's name, or a fantastic concrete event or a place of the event.

Background/Context: Historical studies of this volatile period in educational history (1960-2003 tend to focus on educational policy and/or curriculum, but rarely address changes in learning theory. Numerous historical studies have traced how psychologists, psychometricians, policymakers, and social scientists have dismissed the intellectual potential of Black students over the course of the 20th century, but these studies have completely overlooked the controversial Black learning style idea and how the idea interacted with the educational and racial discourses of the period. Purpose: This intellectual history traces the rise and fall of the controversial idea that there was a Black learning style. Research Design: Hollinger (1985) defines intellectual history succinctly as the "discourse of intellectuals" (p. 131). Often described as "thinking" rather than "thought," an intellectual history focuses on contingencies, contradictions, and inconsistencies in a discourse; contextualizes the discourse in evolving historical, political, and social contexts; and explores how these changing contexts affect the development of the ideas. Conclusions: The Black learning style and cultural mismatch theories both emerged from the research of psychologist Herman Witkin in the 1950s. The idea was further developed by Rosalie Cohen, Asa Hilliard III, and Janice Hale in the 1970s and 1980s. By the late 1990s, many scholars considered the Black learning style idea to be dangerous and stopped directly referencing it. Despite its eventual rejection, the Black learning style idea inspired many lines of inquiry about the ways that race, culture, and ethnicity impact learning that are still being pursued today. This intellectual history traces the origins, emergence, and fall of the idea that Black students had a different learning and/or cognitive style that clashed with that of White teachers, standardized testing, and American schools.

Although the study of artificial intelligence (AI) used in language teaching and learning is increasingly prevailing, research on language two (L2) learner cognitive psychological factors about AI writing corrective feedback (WCF) is scarce. This paper explores L2 learner cognitive psychology of pigai, an AI evaluating system for English writings in China, from perspectives of perception, noticing, uptake, initiative, retention and emotion. It investigates the consistency between learner cognitive psychology about AI WCF and the expected one and probes into the correlation of learner cognitive psychological factors about AI WCF, aiming at bridging the gap between the research of AI WCF and that of L2 learner cognitive psychology. After a 5-point Likert anonymous questionnaire survey of 1952 undergraduate L2 learners in Anhui University of Finance and Economics (AUFE), the statistical data of Pearson correlation coefficient indicate that learner perception, noticing, uptake, initiative, retention and emotion are positively related in the context of AI WCF, which conforms to the early research of learner cognitive psychology about WCF. But one sample t-test reveals that learner cognitive psychology of AI WCF only occasionally or sometimes consists with the expected one. The subsequent random interviews with 15 respondents suggest that pigai WCF is beneficial to L2 writing, yet there is still much room for it to improve to be deeply integrated with human WCF.

The significance of illusion as a positive force in everyday life has been underestimated in both societal discourse and in empirical science. The objective of this study is to provide a synthesis of many academic disciplines' understanding of illusion and reality by proposing a taxonomy of functional and dysfunctional subjective realities as based on the assumption that the human mind is adaptive in an evolutionary sense and likely to be a quantum entanglement system. Assumptions and discussions needed to construct the taxonomy are generally based on empirical research drawing from evolutionary theory, neurology, biology, anthropology, psychology, psychiatry, physics and other disciplines. The purpose of the proposed taxonomy is heuristic, serving as a base for further studies drawing particular attention to the fact that, by evolutionary processes, Homo sapiens have been made dependent on multiple subjective realities where illusion and reality are not necessarily opposites. The article is concluded by discussing possible reasons for why illusions as a positive force in human behaviour has been neglected in comparison to the dysfunctions of the human mind of which research abound.

Process overlap theory (POT) is a new theoretical framework designed to account for the general factor of intelligence ("g"). According to POT, g does not reflect a general cognitive ability. Instead, "g" is the result of multiple domain-general executive attention processes and multiple domain-specific processes that are sampled in an overlapping manner across a battery of intelligence tests. POT explains several benchmark findings on human intelligence. However, the precise nature of the executive attention processes underlying g remains unclear. In the current paper, we discuss challenges associated with building a theory of individual differences in attention and intelligence. We argue that the conflation of psychological theories and statistical models, as well as problematic inferences based on latent variables, impedes research progress and prevents theory building. Two studies designed to illustrate the unique features of POT relative to previous approaches are presented. In Study 1, a simulation is presented to illustrate precisely how POT accounts for the relationship between executive attention processes and "g." In Study 2, three datasets from previous studies are reanalyzed (N = 243, N = 234, N = 945) and reveal a discrepancy between the POT simulated model and the unity/diversity model of executive function. We suggest that this discrepancy is largely due to methodological problems in previous studies but also reflects different goals of research on individual differences in attention. The unity/diversity model is designed to facilitate research on executive function and dysfunction associated with cognitive and neural development and disease. POT is uniquely suited to guide and facilitate research on individual differences in cognitive ability and the investigation of executive attention processes underlying "g."

Modern educational technology has the potential to support students to use their study time more effectively. Learning analytics can indicate relevant individual differences between learners, which adaptive learning systems can use to tailor the learning experience to individual learners. For fact learning, cognitive models of human memory are well suited to tracing learners' acquisition and forgetting of knowledge over time. Such models have shown great promise in controlled laboratory studies. To work in realistic educational settings, however, they need to be easy to deploy and their adaptive components should be based on individual differences relevant to the educational context and outcomes. Here, we focus on predicting university students' exam performance using a model-based adaptive fact-learning system. The data presented here indicate that the system provides tangible benefits to students in naturalistic settings. The model's estimate of a learner's rate of forgetting predicts overall grades and performance on individual exam questions. This encouraging case study highlights the value of model-based adaptive fact-learning systems in classrooms.

The increasing number of adult learners in higher education is a trend that has been observed in recent years. An impetus for this trend is the need for upskilling and re-skilling in order to stay relevant and employable in today's world of globalised knowledge. However, finding uninterrupted blocks of time to study in adult learners' busy schedules may be challenging because of their many other commitments and responsibilities. Bite-sized learning, through the utilisation of micro-learning activities that learners can access anytime and anywhere on their mobile devices, is one method of helping adult learners better manage their studies and learn more effectively. Before adult educators put in the resources to develop bite-sized learning activities, it is nonetheless important to ascertain that adult learners would indeed utilise such provisions. This article discusses the results of a study conducted to investigate the utilisation of bite-sized learning by adult learners enrolled in a part-time undergraduate degree programme. Specifically, the study examined whether adult learners utilised bite-sized learning activities during pockets of "down time" in their busy schedules, especially during the daytime, since adult learners tend to study at night after work or over the weekends. The results showed that adult learners were keen to learn from bite-sized learning activities during these pockets of down time. Implications of the results and directions for future investigation, including the aptness of bite-sized learning in today's COVID-19 situation, are also discussed.

The current study describes the process of a participatory consultation framework, the Participatory Culture Specific Intervention Model (PCSIM), to plan and implement a data-based decision-making framework. The framework integrates proactive and systematic identification of emotional and behavioral needs as well as cognitive psychology techniques to promote more deliberate teacher decision making around student behavior. Using a participatory consultation framework is one way to build deeper school buy-in for implementing new initiatives by addressing immediate needs, taking into consideration school context and culture, and explicitly involving important stakeholders in all aspects of the planning and implementation process. We will describe the PCSIM consultation process for developing and piloting a decision-making framework around student behavior that emphasizes prevention and attempts to negate the role of implicit racial bias on decision making in order to reduce disproportionality in behavioral referrals. The current study describes phases 1-9 out of 11 of the PCSIM processes.

Background and Context: Since the surge of grounded cognition (GC) theories in cognitive psychology, many studies have focused on demonstrating the importance of embodiment and sensorimotor activities on students' conceptual development. In computing education, however, there is not yet a conceptual framework for developing age-appropriate. Objective: This paper brings these sets of work together, showing how the wider grounded cognition literature can be of value to computing education. The main objective of the paper is to suggest and set the theoretical foundations of a model for conceptual development in the early years of computing education. Method: The paper is a conceptual paper and thus, it is based on an extensive account of relevant cognitive psychology and education literature. Findings: The paper presents a model for conceptual development (EIFFEL -Enacted Instrumented Formal Framework for Early Learning in Computing). The general premise underlying the model is that programming concepts are first realised as actions performed on objects; as such, it aims to describe children's conceptual development in computing from their first actions on concrete objects to entirely abstract forms of action representation epitomised by a program. Implications: The model constitutes the first attempt to theorise conceptual development in the early years of computing education; as such it is expected to be used for the design of learning trajectories that progressively advance children's conceptualisations from concrete, situated and multi-modal to formal and more abstract representations.

A fundamental goal of education is to inspire and instill deep, meaningful, and long-lasting conceptual change within the knowledge landscapes of students. This commentary posits that the tools of network science could be useful in helping educators achieve this goal in two ways. First, methods from cognitive psychology and network science could be helpful in quantifying and analyzing the structure of students' knowledge of a given discipline as a knowledge network of interconnected concepts. Second, network science methods could be relevant for investigating the developmental trajectories of knowledge structures by quantifying structural change in knowledge networks, and potentially inform instructional design in order to optimize the acquisition of meaningful knowledge as the student progresses from being a novice to an expert in the subject. This commentary provides a brief introduction to common network science measures and suggests how they might be relevant for shedding light on the cognitive processes that underlie learning and retrieval, and discusses ways in which generative network growth models could inform pedagogical strategies to enable meaningful long-term conceptual change and knowledge development among students.

This study investigates language teachers' verbal construals of classroom anxiety and its cognitive precursors by drawing on the TRANSITIVITY and ATTITUDE systems in systemic functional linguistics (Martin & White, 2005) and integrating them with appraisal theory in cognitive psychology (Smith & Lazarus, 1993). Three collegiate-level German teachers in a CLIL-like context participated in a two-week classroom observation sequence, which included 8 in-depth, semi-structured interviews that employed stimulated recall methodology by way of recorded classroom observations. Transcribed interview data were examined using both TRANSITIVITY analysis to capture experiential meanings and a multi-step TRANSITIVITY and ATTITUDE analysis to capture both emotional meanings and cognitive appraisals simultaneously. Findings revealed individual patterns of verbal construals of anxiety for each participant. The multi-step analysis uncovered discernible patterns for the verbal construal of cognitive appraisals that are strongly associated with both participants' feelings of anxiety and their beliefs about the nature of language teaching. Based on these findings, a new system network for the description and approach to the analysis of foreign language (FL) teacher emotions is proposed and implications of the findings for future research into teacher emotions and beliefs, as well as for teacher training, emotional well-being, and foreign language pedagogy research are discussed.

Scholars have extensively investigated the effectiveness of high variability phonetic training (HVPT), that is, identification and discrimination of second language speech sounds produced by multiple speakers followed by trial-by-trial feedback. Building on the notion of incidental and multimodal learning in cognitive psychology (e.g., Lim & Holt, 2011), we developed a new, HVPT-based videogame paradigm in which participants aimed to shoot clay targets as fast as possible while being guided to learn sound cues as a by-product of planned learning. Focusing on the speech acquisition of 58 Japanese English-as-a-foreign-language learners, the current study set out to test the pedagogical potential and limits of the incidental HVPT approach. According to the results of statistical analyses, the effectiveness of incidental HVPT can be more clearly observed if it focuses on more learnable targets (e.g., acquisition of English [ae]-[open-mid back unrounded vowel] rather than [r]-[l] contrasts) with gains being more generalizable from trained to new speakers' voices and from perception to production dimensions.

The 1980s and 1990s saw a robust connection between computer science education and cognitive psychology as researchers worked to understand how students learn to program. More recently, academic disciplines such as science and engineering have begun drawing on cognitive psychology research and theories of learning to create instructional materials and teacher professional development materials based on theories of learning, to some success. In this paper, we follow a similar approach by highlighting common areas of interest between computer science education and cognitive psychology--specifically theories of analogical transfer--and discuss how cross-pollination of theoretical constructs between disciplines can support research on the teaching and learning of multiple programming languages. We will also discuss areas where computing education research can adapt the existing theories from cognitive psychology to develop domain-specific theories of knowledge transfer in computing and feed back into cognitive psychology research to inform larger debates about the nature of cognition and learning.

A classic issue in the cognitive psychology of human category learning has involved the contrast between exemplar and prototype models. However, experimental tests to distinguish the models have relied almost solely on use of artificially-constructed categories composed of simplified stimuli. Here we contrast the predictions from the models in a real-world natural-science category domain--geologic rock types. Previous work in this domain used a set of complementary methods, including multidimensional scaling and direct dimension ratings, to derive a high-dimensional feature space in which the rock stimuli are embedded. The present work compares the category-learning predictions of exemplar and prototype models that make reference to this derived feature space. The experiments include conditions that should be favorable to prototype abstraction, including use of multiple large-size categories, delayed transfer testing, and real-world category structures. Nevertheless, the results of the qualitative and quantitative model comparisons point toward the exemplar model as providing a far better account of the observed results. Evidence is also provided that participants do not rely on all-or-none rote memories for the stored exemplars but rather use remembered exemplars as a basis for generalizing to novel transfer items from the learned categories. Limitations and directions of future work are discussed.

Previous studies have found that students' concept-building approaches, identified a priori with a cognitive psychology laboratory task, are associated with student exam performances in chemistry classes. Abstraction learners (those who extract the principles underlying related examples) performed better than exemplar learners (those who focus on memorizing the training exemplars and responses) on transfer exam questions but not retention questions, after accounting for general ability. We extended these findings to introductory biology courses in which active-learning techniques were used to try to foster deep conceptual learning. Exams were constructed to contain both transfer and retention questions. Abstraction learners demonstrated better performance than exemplar learners on the transfer questions but not on the retention questions. These results were not moderated by indices of crystallized or fluid intelligence. Our central interpretation is that students identified as abstraction learners appear to construct a deep understanding of the concepts (presumably based on abstract underpinnings), thereby enabling them to apply and generalize the concepts to scenarios and instantiations not seen during instruction (transfer questions). By contrast, other students appear to base their representations on memorized instructed examples, leading to good performance on retention questions but not transfer questions.

Long-term semantic memory (LTM) is known for affecting recall during working memory (WM) tasks. However, the way LTM intervenes in WM remains unknown. Moreover, the available findings are incongruent concerning how attention modulates the impact of LTM on WM. To examine this issue, the involvement of LTM representations in a complex span task was manipulated through variations of the associative relatedness of memory items, while the attentional demand of the concurrent task was varied. Children and young adults were also compared, because children are less efficient in using refreshing for maintenance than adults. Despite the impact of the three main factors on recall performance, which was better for related than unrelated words, with the low rather than the high demanding concurrent task and for adults than children, there was no interaction between associative relatedness and attentional demand, neither in children nor in adults. We replicated these results in a second experiment with a more attention-demanding concurrent task. Moreover, analyses of recall latency showed that adults were faster than children at recalling words and both age groups were faster for related (vs. unrelated) words, but there was no effect of the concurrent attentional demand on recall latency and no interaction. Finally, errors were mostly omissions and transpositions, both more prevalent under high concurrent attentional demand. The present findings suggest that the availability of attention does not modulate the effect of LTM on WM. We discuss how WM models can account for this finding and how LTM can act on WM functioning.

Personal values influence goals and motivate actions. The case study reported in this paper explored whether an understanding of values would provide a useful framework to guide the co-creation of the undergraduate cognitive psychology curriculum at a UK University. A design team composed of staff and students ran two co-creation workshops to explore underlying values. These values were translated into curriculum ideas which were then shared via an online survey to students and staff for feedback. The activities revealed a set of values that were salient when imagining future curriculum designs: feeling stimulated, choice and autonomy, developing competence, feeling safe and secure, community and fairness. In addition, a deeper value layer was visible which reflected participants' orientations to learning and education. We describe our process for eliciting values and the intertwined and iterative relationship between value elicitation and a co-created curriculum. We also reflect on the position of co-creation within the value landscape of higher education and the social dynamics of staff-student partnerships. We argue that whilst using values to frame co-creation allows for deeper insight into how to embed curriculum re-innovation, it is important to attend to the value system of co-creation and those who do not participate.

The present study investigated whether student engagement with different online blended learning activities predicts academic performance as measured via a multiple-choice online exam for an undergraduate cognitive psychology course. Higher completion rates of weekly online quizzes predicted final exam performance. Findings are discussed in relation to using online learning resources to enhance student engagement and performance and learning analytics to identify students in need of further support. Since findings only revealed one significant predictor, more research is required to identify additional factors influencing academic achievement in an online blended learning approach.

Initial teacher education (ITE) needs to respond to the huge increase in research in neuroscience that informs our understanding of learning. Educational applications of cognitive psychology, in particular from the field of memory, are strongly evident in government policy documents in England, but as yet the wider contribution of educational neuroscience is not explicit. ITE needs to open trainee teachers' thinking to these perspectives and what can be learned from them, but also needs to examine them critically and in relation to other forms of educational knowledge and aims. This article explains how one university is taking an interdisciplinary approach to this challenge to develop their ITE curriculum.

Working memory (WM) has a limited capacity; however, this limitation can be mitigated by selecting individual items from the set currently held in WM for prioritization. The selection mechanism underlying this prioritization ability is referred to as the focus of attention (FOA) in WM. Although impressive progress has been achieved in recent years, a fundamental question remains unclear: Do perception and WM share one FOA? In the current study, we investigated the hypothesis that only a perceptual task tapping object-based attention can divert the FOA in WM. We adopted a retro-cue WM paradigm and inserted a perceptual task after the offset of the cue. Critically, we manipulated the type of attention (object-based attention in Experiments 1-3, feature-based attention in Experiment 4, and spatial attention in Experiment 5) consumed by the perceptual task. We found that participants were able to prioritize a retro-cued representation in WM, and the retro-cue benefit on memory accuracy was intact regardless of the perceptual task. Critically, the retro-cue benefit on the response time of WM task was significantly reduced only after an object-based attention perceptual task (Experiments 1, 2, 3a, and 3b), while remaining constant after a feature-based attention (Experiment 4) or spatial attention (Experiment 5) perceptual task. These results suggest that WM and perception share an object-based FOA, and an object-based attention perceptual task can divert the FOA in WM. Meanwhile, the current study further confirms that sustained attention is not necessary for selective maintenance in WM.

We extended a series of interventions developed in modern cognitive psychology to a group of students who had been academically dismissed and were at high risk to not complete college. Students learned how to respond adaptively to academic failure, how to embrace challenge, how to set realistic goals, and how to persist until their goals are achieved. The interventions were delivered within a sophomore seminar course. Within the class, students learned about, considered and practiced aspects of growth mindset, goal orientation, grit, stereotype threat, and belongingness. Before beginning the class, the 68 students had a mean cumulative GPA of 1.45, a course completion rate of 60%, and it was expected that over half would drop out of college within the next year. Following the intervention, students earned a mean semester GPA of 2.39, a course completion rate of 73%, 72% were retained for the next semester, and 58% were still enrolled one year later. These findings provide support for the benefits of these techniques used together to afford student success in a population of students that have previously struggled academically.