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Depression is apparently the most common psychiatric disease among the mood disorders affecting about 10% of the adult population. The etiology and pathogenesis of depression are still poorly understood. Hence, as for most human diseases, animal models can help us understand the pathogenesis of depression and, more importantly, may facilitate the search for therapy. In this review we first describe the more common tests used for the evaluation of depressive-like symptoms in rodents. Then we describe different models of depression and discuss their strengths and weaknesses. These models can be divided into several categories: genetic models, models induced by mental acute and chronic stressful situations caused by environmental manipulations (i.e., learned helplessness in rats/mice), models induced by changes in brain neuro-transmitters or by specific brain injuries and models induced by pharmacological tools. In spite of the fact that none of the models completely resembles human depression, most animal models are relevant since they mimic many of the features observed in the human situation and may serve as a powerful tool for the study of the etiology, pathogenesis and treatment of depression, especially since only few patients respond to acute treatment. Relevance increases by the fact that human depression also has different facets and many possible etiologies and therapies.

The knowledge on the effect of different stress factors on Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758, is far from complete and therefore we decided to find out how the low water level stress could effect pathophysiological parameters such as: plasma cortisol level, haemoglobin, haematocrit, chloride (Cl–), sodium (Na+), osmolality, lactate, and glucose in this fish; and how this stressor affects the gut morphology. Two hundred and four juvenile Atlantic salmon were randomly distributed into six fibreglass tanks and divided into two groups: group 1 (control) and group 2 (low water level stress). The low water level stress did not affect growth performance and the pathophysiological parameters. Light- and transmission electron microscopy evaluations of the pyloric caeca and the distal intestine revealed that chronic stress had no effect on gut morphology. Low water level stress had no clear effects on pathophysiological parameters and gut morphology of Atlantic salmon.

Highlights: [•] Assessment of individual stress reactivity at each trimester of pregnancy is needed. [•] Variables such as social support or coping strategies can modulate stress reactivity. [•] Prenatal and postnatal stress, anxiety and depression have to be examined simultaneously. [•] Prenatal stress might impair mother–infant interactions via maternal representations. [•] Future research should study together maternal perceived stress and biological stress. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The knowledge on the effect of different stress factors on Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758, is far from complete and therefore we decided to find out how the low water level stress could effect pathophysiological parameters such as: plasma cortisol level, haemoglobin, haematocrit, chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na+), osmolality, lactate, and glucose in this fish; and how this stressor affects the gut morphology. Two hundred and four juvenile Atlantic salmon were randomly distributed into six fibreglass tanks and divided into two groups: group 1 (control) and group 2 (low water level stress). The low water level stress did not affect growth performance and the pathophysiological parameters. Light- and transmission electron microscopy evaluations of the pyloric caeca and the distal intestine revealed that chronic stress had no effect on gut morphology. Low water level stress had no clear effects on pathophysiological parameters and gut morphology of Atlantic salmon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Depression is apparently the most common psychiatric disease among the mood disorders affecting about 10% of the adult population. The etiology and pathogenesis of depression are still poorly understood. Hence, as for most human diseases, animal models can help us understand the pathogenesis of depression and, more importantly, may facilitate the search for therapy. In this review we first describe the more common tests used for the evaluation of depressive-like symptoms in rodents. Then we describe different models of depression and discuss their strengths and weaknesses. These models can be divided into several categories: genetic models, models induced by mental acute and chronic stressful situations caused by environmental manipulations (i.e., learned helplessness in rats/mice), models induced by changes in brain neuro-transmitters or by specific brain injuries and models induced by pharmacological tools. In spite of the fact that none of the models completely resembles human depression, most animal models are relevant since they mimic many of the features observed in the human situation and may serve as a powerful tool for the study of the etiology, pathogenesis and treatment of depression, especially since only few patients respond to acute treatment. Relevance increases by the fact that human depression also has different facets and many possible etiologies and therapies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]