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The risk of the use of toxic chemicals for unlawful acts has been a matter of concern for different governments and multilateral agencies. The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which oversees the implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), considering recent events employing chemical warfare agents as means of assassination, has recently included in the CWC "Annex on Chemicals" some organophosphorus compounds that are regarded as acting in a similar fashion to the classical G- and V-series of nerve agents, inhibiting the pivotal enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Therefore, knowledge of the activity of the pyridinium oximes, the sole class of clinically available acetylcholinesterase reactivators to date, is plainly justified. In this paper, continuing our research efforts in medicinal chemistry on this class of toxic chemicals, we synthesized an A-230 nerve agent surrogate and applied a modified Ellman's assay to evaluate its ability to inhibit our enzymatic model, acetylcholinesterase from Electrophorus eel, and if the clinically available antidotes are able to rescue the enzyme activity for the purpose of relating the findings to the previously disclosed in silico data for the authentic nerve agent and other studies with similar A-series surrogates. Our experimental data indicates that pralidoxime is the most efficient compound for reactivating acetylcholinesterase inhibited by A-230 surrogate, which is the opposite of the in silico data previously disclosed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ricin is a toxic protein regarded as a potential chemical weapon for bioterrorism or criminal use. In the event of a ricin incident, rapid analytical methods are essential for ricin confirmation in a diversity of matrices, from environmental to human or food samples. Mass spectrometry–based methods provide specific toxin identification but require prior enrichment by antibodies to reach trace-level detection in matrices. Here, we describe a novel assay using the glycoprotein asialofetuin as an alternative to antibodies for ricin enrichment, combined with the specific detection of signature peptides by high-resolution mass spectrometry. Additionally, optimizations made to the assay reduced the sample preparation time from 5 h to 80 min only. Method evaluation confirmed the detection of ricin at trace levels over a wide range of pH and in protein-rich samples, illustrating challenging matrices. This new method constitutes a relevant antibody-free solution for the fast and specific mass spectrometry detection of ricin in the situation of a suspected toxin incident, complementary to active ricin determination by adenine release assays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article revisits the concept of strategic ambiguity to identify and critically assess the overlooked role of international norms. Addressing a significant gap within the existing analysis of strategic ambiguity which fails to fully explain the role of norms, the article demonstrates how international norms construct and function within deliberately ambiguous foreign policy as the normative exploitation of epistemic ambiguity. Yet the article further reveals that strategic ambiguity is then systemically dependent on a precarious overreliance on epistemic ambiguity; this comprises a highly fragile policy framework which is excessively vulnerable to change. The article applies this innovative retheorization to an empirical case-study: United States foreign policy concerning the alleged Russian chemical warfare strategy in Ukraine. This analysis is based on an original and comparative discursive analysis of US administration and institutional public statements drawn primarily from government archives. The new analysis a) identifies US policy as strategic ambiguity and explains the strategy's motivations and perceived benefits; b) shows how an international norm (the chemical weapons taboo) was employed to enact an ambiguous foreign policy; but also, c) demonstrates the intrinsic fragility and potential collapse of this strategic ambiguity as a consequence of normative dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the presented study, an efficient and fast analytical method was developed for the determination of parathion ethyl as sarin simulant by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Dispersive solid phase extraction (DSPE) was performed to concentrate parathion ethyl from soil, plant and water samples. Reduced graphene oxide–iron (II, III) oxide (rGO-Fe3O4) nanocomposite was used as an adsorbent to collect the target analyte from the aqueous sample solutions. After the optimization of extraction/preconcentration parameters, optimum conditions for adsorbent amount, eluent type, mixing type/period, eluent volume and initial sample volume were determined as 15 mg, acetonitrile, vortex/30 s, 100 µL and 10 mL, respectively. Under the optimum conditions, analytical performance of the developed DSPE-GC–MS method was evaluated in terms of limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantitation (LOQ) and dynamic range. Dynamic range, LOD and LOQ values were figured out to be 0.94–235.15 µg/kg, 0.41 µg/kg and 1.36 µg/kg (mass based), respectively. Satisfactory percent recovery results (90.3–125% for soil, 93.5–108.7% for plant, 88.5–112.9% for tap water) were achieved for soil, plant and tap water samples which proved the accuracy and applicability of the developed method. It is predicted that the DSPE-GC–MS method can be accurately used for the detection of sarin in soil, plant and water samples taken from war territories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rationale: The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) mandates rigorous screening of chemical weapons and their potential degradation/reaction products, which is essential to identify such products in suspected samples. The reaction between 2‐(N,N‐dialkylamino)ethylchlorides and 2‐(N,N‐dialkylamino)ethanols (precursors/degradation products of VX agents) produces a new class of reaction products that are not explored. Methods: The reaction products, bis(2‐N,N‐dialkylaminoethyl)ethers (1–10), were synthesized using established synthetic procedures, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) (electron ionization [EI] and chemical ionization [CI]) methods were developed for their identification. The GC/MS experiments were performed on an Agilent GC/MSD system using an HP‐5MS capillary column. Methane gas was used as the CI reagent gas for GC/CIMS experiments. GC/retention index (RI) values of 1–10 were calculated using the retention times of the hydrocarbon mixture and the analytes. Results: The GC/EI spectra of 1–10 exhibited [M‐H]+ ions and distinctive fragments that provided valuable structural information. The selective fragmentation of the alkyl groups on nitrogen facilitated the discrimination of possible isomeric compounds. Interpretation of EI fragments in the high mass region is important for unambiguous identification of 1–10, because the major ions significantly match other CWC‐related compounds containing the 2‐(N,N‐dialkylaminoethyl) group. GC/CI (methane) spectra included M+., [M + H]+, [M‐H]+, reagent‐specific adduct ions, and a few structure‐indicative fragments. The spiking experiments in soil and water samples revealed that the target analytes were stable, easily extractable, and detectable using GC/MS. Conclusions: The reaction products, 1–10, could be successfully synthesized and characterized using GC/MS (EI and CI). The GC/MS and GC/RI data provide important insights into the unambiguous identification of the target molecules in challenging CWC verification and are helpful in participation in the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons proficiency tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the use of chemical weapons, there is a gradual spontaneous decomposition of chemical warfare agents (CWAs), and only degradation products can be present at the time of sample collection. Depending on the type of parent compound, these are most often acids, alcohols, or thiols. This article deals with the development and optimization of methods for the trimethylsilylation of controlled alcohols that outperforms the currently widely used method with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) prior to gas chromatographic identification. Thiodiglycol (TDG) was chosen as a model alcohol for the development and optimization of methods. Nine trimethylsilylating agents were tested as derivatization agents. For each reagent, the method was optimized in terms of reaction medium (seven tested solvents), reaction time, and temperature. The temporal stability of the resulting derivatives and the effect of the addition of the reaction catalyst were also monitored. Subsequently, optimal methods were applied in the derivatization of N-ethyldiethanolamine, N-methyldiethanolamine, triethanolamine, 2-diisopropylaminoethanol (DIAE), and 3-quinuclidinol. The developed methods were compared in all monitored properties with the standard BSTFA-method (in acetonitrile for 30 min at 60 °C). From the developed methods, three were selected that showed similar or better sensitivity parameters than BSTFA, and at the same time were less demanding to perform. Trimethylsilylation via trimethylsilyl cyanide (TMSCN) appears to be the most successful method. In conclusion, the selected methods were applied in the analysis of contaminated environmental and urban samples – sand, acrylic paint, asphalt-aluminum paint, and concrete. The samples were measured on both a benchtop and a field gas chromatograph. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The risk of a terrorist attack in the United States has created challenges on how to effectively treat toxicities that result from exposure to chemical weapons. To address this concern, the United States has organized a trans‐agency initiative across academia, government, and industry to identify drugs to treat tissue injury resulting from exposure to chemical threat agents. We sought to develop and evaluate an interactive educational session that provides hands‐on instruction on how to repurpose FDA‐approved drugs as therapeutics to treat toxicity from exposure to chemical weapons. As part of the Rutgers Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship program, 23 undergraduate students participated in a 2‐h session that included: (1) an overview of chemical weapon toxicities, (2) a primer on pharmacology principles, and (3) an interactive session where groups of students were provided lists of FDA‐approved drugs to evaluate potential mechanisms of action and suitability as countermeasures for four chemical weapon case scenarios. The interactive session culminated in a competition for the best grant "sales pitch." From this interactive training, students improved their understanding of (1) the ability of chemical weapons to cause long‐term toxicities, (2) impact of route of administration and exposure scenario on drug efficacy, and (3) re‐purposing FDA‐approved drugs to treat disease from chemical weapon exposure. These findings demonstrated that an interactive training exercise can provide students with new insights into drug development for chemical threat agent toxicities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Engaging the thinking of Georges Bataille, this article examines the international politics of poison as a category of death-dealing that defies distinctions between war/not war and weapon/not weapon. Refraining from splitting poison into pesticides and chemical weapons, the article analyses political ecologies and affective economies of poison both historically and today, to illuminate which desires and strategies poison, as a technology of death, lends itself to. Taking its departure in Bataille's writing on fascism and ending with his main theory of a general economy, the article weaves through nerve agent assassinations, fumigation, and ideas about gardening, to arrive at the conclusion that poison is not so much an excessive response as it is a response to excess. Following Bataille in viewing ecology as economies of consumption and competition, the article develops a rubric of martial economies of poison to encapsulate how poison, as mode of martial expenditure, makes spaces vacant by death, and room for organisms deemed worthy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theoretically grounded in queer death studies and environmental humanities, this article has a twofold aim. Firstly, it explores the somatechnics of environmental violence in the context of Northern and Eastern Europe, while paying attention to ongoing ecocide inflicted by Russia on Ukraine, and to the post-WW2 chemical weapon dumps in the Baltic Sea. Secondly, the article examines the concept of eco-grief in its close relation to artistic narratives on ecocide. By bridging the discussion on environmental violence and artistic renderings of eco-grief, the article hopes to contribute to a better understanding of the socio-cultural responses to more-than-human death and loss, and their accompanying ethical imaginaries and affordances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the field of chemical warfare agents (CWAs), ethanolamines are important building blocks for the preparation of nerve agents belonging to the V-series such as VX and VR as well as the nitrogen-based mustards. In this work, the determination of three members in this class of Schedule 2B reportable chemicals, namely N,N-dimethylethanolamine (DMEA), N,N-diethylethanolamine (DEEA), and N,N-diisopropylethanolamine (DIEA) by electron ionization gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (EI-GC-MS) is presented. The three dialkylethanolamines were spiked in a high organic content soil matrix featured during the 45th Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) proficiency test (PT) at two separate concentrations each (1 and 10 µg/g separately), simulating values often encountered during these tests. The N,N-dialkylethanolamines were O-alkylated using benzyl bromide and sodium carbonate at 55 °C and were detected as their benzylated versions by electron ionization GC-MS. The benzylation of each dialkylethanolamine yielded derivatives with higher molecular weight and therefore different GC-MS profiles such as longer retention times and sharper peak chromatography relative to their unmodified counterparts. These characteristics enable the analytical chemist to detect and confirm these important CWA-related chemicals specifically in instances where they are present in low concentrations (i.e. <10 µg/g) among more abundant interferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACTNegotiating an international disarmament treaty that has as one of its core requirements the concept of “irreversibility” will be a major task, especially so if the aim is to ensure that nuclear weapons and the means of their production and maintenance are irreversibly destroyed. The task exists on several levels: the practical and technical – how to design and implement an effective verification regime, the legal – how to frame necessary treaty definitions, prohibitions and controls; and diplomatic – negotiating and agreeing on the treaty provisions and the temporal factors. The Chemical Weapons Convention’s main objective is the destruction of chemical weapons and their production facilities, but an equally important objective is prevention of their re-emergence. At the heart of the matter is the concept of dual-use where materials and facilities have both legitimate peaceful purposes and actual or potential for hostile purposes, and the basic starting materials required exist in nature. The same applies in the nuclear context. So what can we learn from the CWC? A treaty with nuclear irreversibility as its goal will face multiple challenges. Setting and agreeing treaty language that is clear on scope and enables trouble-free implementation over many decades will not be easily achieved given the record of existing and previous arms control and disarmament treaties. However, there is likely to be one crucial difference: a treaty with nuclear irreversibility as its sole purpose will not be negotiated and implemented in the sort of conflicted world that we saw during the Cold War.

This article discusses how a rural hospital in central Kentucky, located near a chemical weapons stockpile, developed an effective emergency preparedness program through collaboration with the U.S. Army, FEMA, and local response organizations. The hospital's participation in the Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (CSEPP) provided valuable lessons in emergency management and led to the development of a robust program. The hospital emphasized the importance of communication, multidisciplinary training, patient tracking, and community partnerships in emergency preparedness. They plan to continue practicing and maintaining relationships even after the program ends. [Extracted from the article]

Pinacolyl alcohol (PA), a key forensic marker for the nerve agent Soman (GD), is a particularly difficult analyte to detect by various analytical methods. In this work, we have explored the reaction between PA and 1,1′‐carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) to yield pinacolyl 1H‐imidazole‐1‐carboxylate (PIC), a product that can be conveniently detected by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and liquid chromatography‐high‐resolution mass spectrometry (LC‐HRMS). Regarding its GC–MS profile, this new carbamate derivative of PA possesses favorable chromatographic features such as a sharp peak and a longer retention time (RT = 16.62 min) relative to PA (broad peak and short retention time, RT = 4.1 min). The derivative can also be detected by LC‐HRMS, providing an avenue for the analysis of this chemical using this technique where PA is virtually undetectable unless present in large concentrations. From a forensic science standpoint, detection of this low molecular weight alcohol signals the past or latent presence of the nerve agent Soman (GD) in a given matrix (i.e., environmental or biological). The efficiency of the protocol was tested separately in the analysis and detection of PA by EI‐GC–MS and LC‐HRMS when present at a 10 μg/mL in a soil matrix featured in the 44th PT and in a glycerol‐rich liquid matrix featured in the 48th Official Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) Proficiency Test when present at a 5 μg/mL concentration. In both scenarios, PA was successfully transformed into PIC, establishing the protocol as an additional tool for the analysis of this unnatural and unique nerve agent marker by GC–MS and LC‐HRMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about military attitudes toward weapons taboos or the durability of nonuse norms in wartime. Chemical weapons are a key case given public revulsion and clear international prohibitions. We explore soldiers' attitudes in a salient setting: the Pacific theater of World War II. We draw on a declassified survey covering a representative sample of enlisted US soldiers in Hawaii in 1944. This unique context, during a total war against an adversary that had employed chemical weapons, represents a hard test for the chemical weapons taboo. Up to 91% of soldiers supported using chemical weapons against Japan, including 24% who favored initiation and 67% who favored retaliatory use. To understand the influence of military instruction, we exploit a novel regimen still used in basic training, which saw some troops exposed to lachrymatory gas. We find exposure to chemical weapons in training reduced support for use. Visceral experiences can mobilize support for weapons taboos in otherwise permissive environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addition to three known compounds (1 – 3), two new rearranged spongian diterpenes (4 and 5) with perhydroazulene and dioxabicyclooctane ring systems were isolated from the mantle and viscera of the Australian nudibranch G oniobranchus coi. The relative configuration of the major spiroepoxide 4 was explored by comparison with those of m -chloroperbenzoic acid oxidation products derived from dendrillolide A (1). Aldehydes 6 and 7 were identified as the ring-opened artefacts of the spiroepoxides 5 and 4 respectively, and yielded ketone 3 on storage. The relative configurations of lactols 8 and 9 , isolated as an inseparable mixture of diastereomers, were deduced by molecular modelling and computational studies. Acetylation of the lactol mixture provided dendrillolide A (1), further confirming the structural assignments of 8 and 9. Dissection of animal tissue established that the norditerpenoid metabolites were present in both mantle and viscera tissues. The nudibranch Goniobranchus coi sequesters and concentrates antifeedant oxygenated diterpenes into its mantle dermal formations to utilise as a chemical weapon when attacked by predators. Through chemical correlation, high-field NMR spectroscopy and molecular modelling new oxygenated metabolites were identified and elucidated. (Image credit: Louise C. Forster.) This article belongs to the collection 10th Anniversary Collection of RACI and AAS Award papers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores historical and literary aspects of Kareem Ketafa's novel The Spider's Siege. It provides a plot summary and situates the novel within its historical context of Anfal 8 campaign in the Bahdinan region of Iraqi Kurdistan, where the communist partisans joined thousands of fugitive villagers who climbed Mount Gara for refuge from the army and its use of chemical weapons. The article discusses the novelist's literary techniques and his use of literary devices. The structure of the novel, the article tries to demonstrate, is that of a web with parallel threads. The article also discusses the tension between narration and documentation which characterizes the novel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we highlight how the apparent double coverage of toxins and bioregulators by both the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in fact masks a regulatory gap that has left such potentially dangerous agents neglected by both the control regimes during a period of rapid advances in relevant chemical, life and associated sciences and technologies. We first review what toxins, bioregulators and other mid-spectrum agents are and why they are of such concern and then examine how they are regulated under the BTWC and CWC. This paper then examines an illustrative range of contemporary chemical and life science research and associated activities of concern drawn from case study research on China, India, Iran, Russia, Syria and the United States, and assesses how the CWC and BTWC States Parties have inadequately addressed these threats. We then examine how both the CWC and BTWC Review Conferences failed to address these long-term challenges, and we end by providing a series of recommendations for how both regimes can be strengthened in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) have made it illegal for States to develop or use certain chemical and biological weapons. However, these treaties are not all-encompassing. Many nations continue to develop and produce chemical and biological weapons. In 2002, as part of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), the Pentagon released a proposal from an Air Force lab seeking permission to develop biologically based chemicals that would significantly alter human behavior. The premise of behavior-modifying chemicals in conflict situations raises concern, primarily if this technology is developed, how should it be regulated? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflict adversely affects respiratory health in both direct and indirect ways among populations whose health is already compromised through the compounding effects of conflict. Our aim is to review academic and grey literature relevant to respiratory health in the Syrian conflict (now more than a decade in duration) to explore its impacts on populations across Syria. We performed a scoping literature review of academic and grey literature on respiratory health in Syria between March 2011 (taken as the start of the conflict for practicality) and December 2023. Of 11,472 papers screened, 34 met the inclusion criteria, of which 29 were peer reviewed. Key themes identified included the impact of conflict on asthma diagnosis and management; the burden of respiratory tract infections (RTIs) and COVID-19; the impact of chemical weapon use and the impact of destruction and interruptions to the health system(s) across Syria on respiratory health. This review highlights the need for more in-depth exploration of the impact of conflict on respiratory health in Syria with focus on social determinants, for example, shelter, public health interventions, smoking cessation, and supporting early diagnosis and treatment of respiratory conditions to counter the effects that conflict has had on respiratory health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an innovative method for rapidly assessing building vulnerability, with a focus on potential threats. The approach begins with a historical analysis and a review of state-of-the-art literature obtained from open sources. Subsequently, a tool is introduced, incorporating weighted parameters related to threat typology and available mitigation elements. Critical issues in the overall building vulnerability analysis are pinpointed through a scenario-based approach. While primary literature references are based on explosive attacks (such as Beirut in the '80 s, Nairobi in the '90 s, Oklahoma City in the '90s, etc.), the method also considers non- conventional weapons such as Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) threats, along with emerging threats involving direct energy targeting (e.g., Havana Syndrome). The analysis covers six domains: Layout, Structure & Boundary, Technological Plants, In & Out Ways, Cyber, and Building Security Management. Each domain undergoes a comprehensive analysis, identifying threats and developing scenarios and sub-scenarios associated with presumed risks affecting the building. Specific characteristics for each action are identified, with parametric weights assigned to reflect their significance in the overall vulnerability assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Having venom is a rare trait among mammals and even rarer among primates. Slow and pygmy lorises are the only venomous primates, and they possess a unique "two-step" venom system. When threatened, they release a secretion from a gland on their forearm and lick it, activating the venom by mixing it with their saliva. There are several hypotheses for why slow and pygmy lorises evolved this unique trait. Venom can be used to capture prey, to defend against predators or parasites, or for competition with other slow or pygmy lorises. We tested the hypothesis that venom is used to capture prey by experimentally offering various arthropod prey items to 22 wild-caught greater slow lorises living in a rescue center. We observed how their behavior was affected by prey characteristics including size, potential for escape, and toxicity. The few venom-related behaviors we observed only occurred in a defensive context, suggesting that the greater slow lorises do not use their venom as a means of subduing prey. These negative results are consistent with the growing body of evidence that pygmy and slow lorises primarily use venom in competition with members of their own species. Few mammals are venomous, including one group of primates—slow (Nycticebus spp.) and pygmy (Xanthonycticebus spp.) lorises. Hypotheses for the evolutionary function of venom in these primates include defense from predators or ectoparasites, communication or competition with conspecifics, and the capture of prey. We tested the prey capture hypothesis in 75 trials with 22 wild-caught greater slow lorises (N. coucang) housed in a rescue center in Java, Indonesia. We experimentally offered the slow lorises arthropod prey items varying in size, escape potential, and toxicity and recorded venom-related and predatory behaviors using live and video observations. The slow lorises visually targeted arthropod prey, approached it quickly and efficiently, and captured it with a manual grasping motion. They rarely performed venom-related behaviors and seemed to do so in a defensive context. The slow lorises exhibited little variation in pre-capture behavior as a function of prey size or escape potential. In response to noxious prey, the slow lorises performed tongue-flicking and other investigative behaviors that indicate they are using chemosensory input to assess prey characteristics. These data suggest it is unlikely that slow lorises use chemical weapons to subdue arthropod prey and may support, instead, a defensive function for slow loris venom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Nerve agents have emerged as a global threat since their discovery in the 1930s, posing severe risks due to their inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and the subsequent accumulation of acetylcholine in nerve synapses. Despite the enforcement of the Chemical Weapon Convention to control chemical weapons, including nerve agents, recent events, such as the Novichok attacks on Sergei Skripal and Alexei Navalny, have highlighted the persistent threat. Novichok, a distinct class of nerve agents, raises specific concerns regarding its management due to limited understanding. This article aims to comprehensively analyze existing literature. Materials and Methods A scoping review was employed to comprehensively assess the current state of knowledge on managing patients poisoned with Novichok. Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, relevant literature was identified in peer-reviewed journals covering symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, decontamination, and long-term effects. Searches were conducted on February 1, 2023, across four electronic databases (PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, and Web of Science) using "Novichok" as a keyword. No restrictions were applied, and additional studies were sought from the references of identified papers. Eligible papers included discussions on Novichok or its specific properties impacting management, regardless of study type, language, or publication date, while those unrelated to the study's conceptual framework were excluded. Results A total of 170 records were identified from the initial database search, with 86 studies screened after removing duplicates. Among these, 28 publications met the eligibility criteria and were included in the analysis. An additional relevant study was identified from the citation lists of included studies, bringing the total to 29. The review encompasses studies published from 2018 onwards, indicating the growing interest in this topic. While most studies are reviews on Novichok or nerve agents in general, several theoretical and experimental investigations were also found. Conclusion This review highlights the significant uncertainties and knowledge gaps surrounding the management of patients poisoned with Novichok. While some aspects align with other nerve agents, limited research likely due to safety and ethical challenges leads to assumptions and uncertainties in patient care. The review identifies areas with ongoing research, such as decontamination and biomarker recognition, while other aspects remain understudied. The possible inefficacy of current treatment options and the need for further research on oximes, bioscavengers, and long-term effects emphasize the necessity for increased research to optimize patient outcomes. More studies are essential to clarify the actual threat and toxicity of Novichok. Moreover, raising awareness among medical staff is crucial for early diagnosis, prompt treatment, and safety. This review offers valuable insights into managing Novichok-poisoned patients and calls for increased research and awareness in this critical area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A-series agent A-234 belongs to a new generation of nerve agents. The poisoning of a former Russian spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter in Salisbury, England, in March 2018 led to the inclusion of A-234 and other A-series agents into the Chemical Weapons Convention. Even though five years have already passed, there is still very little information on its chemical properties, biological activities, and treatment options with established antidotes. In this article, we first assessed A-234 stability in neutral pH for subsequent experiments. Then, we determined its inhibitory potential towards human recombinant acetylcholinesterase (HssAChE; EC 3.1.1.7) and butyrylcholinesterase (HssBChE; EC 3.1.1.8), the ability of HI-6, obidoxime, pralidoxime, methoxime, and trimedoxime to reactivate inhibited cholinesterases (ChEs), its toxicity in rats and therapeutic effects of different antidotal approaches. Finally, we utilized molecular dynamics to explain our findings. The results of spontaneous A-234 hydrolysis showed a slow process with a reaction rate displaying a triphasic course during the first 72 h (the residual concentration 86.2%). A-234 was found to be a potent inhibitor of both human ChEs (HssAChE IC50 = 0.101 ± 0.003 µM and HssBChE IC50 = 0.036 ± 0.002 µM), whereas the five marketed oximes have negligible reactivation ability toward A-234-inhibited HssAChE and HssBChE. The acute toxicity of A-234 is comparable to that of VX and in the context of therapy, atropine and diazepam effectively mitigate A-234 lethality. Even though oxime administration may induce minor improvements, selected oximes (HI-6 and methoxime) do not reactivate ChEs in vivo. Molecular dynamics implies that all marketed oximes are weak nucleophiles, which may explain the failure to reactivate the A-234 phosphorus-serine oxygen bond characterized by low partial charge, in particular, HI-6 and trimedoxime oxime oxygen may not be able to effectively approach the A-234 phosphorus, while pralidoxime displayed low interaction energy. This study is the first to provide essential experimental preclinical data on the A-234 compound. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective sampling is a key step in the process of proving the use of chemical weapons. An alternative to collecting the respective sample is to perform a wipe of surface contamination. This work deals with the optimization of the wiping process of the surfaces of selected matrices contaminated with bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide and tris(2-chloroethyl)amine. Optimization of the procedure was carried out in terms of the choice of wiping material, wetting solvent and extraction of the wiped contaminant. Furthermore, the time decrease of surface contamination was monitored. The effect of transport on the change in the observed recovery value was investigated and the measurement deviations of the wipe method were discussed. The resulting values of observed recovery were negatively influenced by the volatility of the analyte, the porosity of the matrix and the time that passed since the contamination. Viscose was evaluated as the most effective wipe material. Low relative standard deviations (≤7 %) were achieved with this material. The optimal wetting solvent was dichloromethane. There was no degradation of contaminants on the surface of the matrices, so the fate was only affected by evaporation and penetration into the material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We herein present for the first time the phosphylated (*) tetrapeptide (TP)-adduct GlyGluSer198*Ala generated from butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) with proteinase K excellently suited for the verification of exposure to toxic organophosphorus nerve agents (OPNA). Verification requires bioanalytical methods mandatory for toxicological and legal reasons. OPNA react with BChE by phosphonylation of the active site serine residue (Ser198) forming one of the major target protein adducts for verification. After its enzymatic cleavage with pepsin, the nonapeptide (NP) PheGlyGluSer*AlaGlyAlaAlaSer is typically produced as biomarker. Usually OPNA occur as racemic mixtures of phosphonic acid derivatives with the stereocenter at the phosphorus atom, e.g. (±)-VX. Both enantiomers react with BChE, but the adducted NP does not allow their chromatographic distinction. In contrast, the herein introduced TP-adducts appeared as two peaks when using a stationary reversed phase (1.8 µm) in micro-liquid chromatography–electrospray ionisation tandem-mass spectrometry (µLC–ESI MS/MS) analysis. These two peaks represent diastereomers of the (+)- and (−)-OPNA adducted to the peptide that comprises chiral L-amino acids exclusively. Concentration- and time-dependent effects of adduct formation with (±)-VX and its pure enantiomers (+)- and (−)-VX as well as with (±)-cyclosarin (GF) were investigated in detail characterising enantioselective adduct formation, stability, ageing and spontaneous reactivation. The method was also successfully applied to samples from a real case of pesticide poisoning as well as to samples of biomedical proficiency tests provided by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-deterrence is critically understudied in deterrence theory. Similarly, deterrence practitioners prefer to focus on adversaries' threats rather than seeking to account for the full scope of fears influencing the decision calculus of policymakers. Through historical case studies, this article identifies where self-deterrence has occurred, highlights the benefits of incorporating the concept in future strategic planning and intelligence assessments, and recommends that policymakers, strategists, and analysts acknowledge self-deterrence as an important factor when preparing for future wars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children face unique risks resulting from disasters and conflicts. Broadly, complex emergencies create new and augment existing health risks to children. Direct, conflict-related injuries and deaths–such as those resulting from exposure to chemical weapons and blast injuries–not only have immediate impact but also have long-term impacts on the health and wellbeing of children. Lapses in vaccination coverage, changes in vector patterns, and widespread malnutrition, contribute to new and re-emerging infectious diseases among children. Understanding risks resulting from disasters and conflicts is critical for implementing timely and appropriate public health programs to reduce the negative health effects on children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International law has come a long way in outlawing chemical weapon usage during warfare. From the 1907 Hague Convention to the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention, there exists a comprehensive and mostly successful prohibition and verification regime for chemical weapons. However, the advent of modern warfare in recent conflicts in Syria and in Ukraine demonstrates compliance control is severely lacking for this form of weaponry. Consequently, there is no comprehensive accountability framework for international humanitarian law violations in the form of chemical weapon usage. Without explicit language criminalizing it, this heinous form of war crime ends up slipping under the radar. This article explores these jurisdictional gaps in both international and non-international armed conflicts and recommends ways the international community should cement its commitment to penalizing chemical weapon utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In 1988, the Iraqi government used a range of chemical weapons (CWs) against the Iraqi Kurds of Halabja. Here, we aim to investigate the long-term health consequences in exposed survivors as they are not sufficiently studied. This was a retrospective study conducted from November 2019 to May 2020 assessing the health status of all exposed Halabja chemical attack survivors compared to non-exposed people from the same area. Two hundred thirty survivors and 240 non-exposed participants were enrolled in this study, with control participants matched to age, gender, and occupation. Among the survivors, females were more prevalent. The respiratory system was the most common single exposure route (83, 36.1%), with 138 (60%) of the survivors being exposed by multiple routes. The vast majority (88.7%) of survivors had activities of daily living (ADL) impairment. There was female predominance in mild and moderate cases, with more males in severe cases (p < 0.01). Respiratory and cardiac diseases were significantly more common in the survivors compared to the controls (p < 0.001). Survivors with multiple CW exposure routes had significantly higher rates of ADL impairment (p < 0.001) and cardiac disease, respiratory diseases, and miscarriage (p < 0.01), than those with a single exposure route. In this study comparing CW survivors with a local control population, a single, high-dose exposure to CWs was associated with significant increases in chronic respiratory and cardiac conditions, in addition to high rates of ADL impairment. Similar studies are needed in other, more recent CW survivor cohorts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under military rule (1973–1990), Chile embarked upon several top-secret chemical and biological weapons (CBW) programmes. 'Project ANDREA' and the development of sarin is the best known, although other programmes have also been reported. However, these programmes remain poorly understood – particularly in English language sources. To resolve this, this paper draws upon local-language reporting, Cold War histories and other sources to provide insight into the histories, key personalities, and evolution of Chile's historical CBW programmes. This paper contributes to wider literature on Chile's dictatorship, but also literature on CBW-proliferation, which remains confined to a relatively small set of case studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ever since Germany's use of chlorine gas on the battlefields of Flanders during the First World War, modern warfare has become synonymous with gas warfare, its images an iconographic shorthand for a detached, humiliating, and dishonourable death, and the gas mask a modern symbol of memento mori, a reminder of our own mortality. The paper argues that a critical history of chemical weapons and protective technologies, which is firmly grounded in the historiography and pays particular attention to the wider political and scientific context and related complexities, can help to facilitate greater public understanding and a willingness among key stakeholders to prioritise a shared interest: the creation of a world free from chemical weapons once and for all. Through an extended book review of Peter Thompson's recent book The Gas Mask in Interwar Germany, the paper seeks to demonstrate that writing such a history of modern warfare poses distinct challenges. Across eight chapters, the book covers, among others, the history of the first attack with chlorine gas in 1915, the development of gas masks, the perceived fear of gas among soldiers, the role of doctors in treating gas casualties, the role and writings of "gas specialists", and, last but not least, the alleged realisation of a specific "Nazi chemical modernity", through which the author attempts to connect the subject matter with the Holocaust. Such a wide‐ranging, longue durée perspective can be fruitful if it is done with an attention to critical source analyses and balanced argumentation. Whether the book will inspire scholars to "rewrite the history of the twentieth century", as the author implies, remains to be seen, but its broad discussion about the perceived and real implications of chemical agents and other "invisible toxins" undoubtedly offers food for thought in an increasingly volatile and seemingly threatening world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

V-agents are exceedingly toxic nerve agents. Recently, it was highlighted that V-agents constitute a diverse subclass of compounds with most of them not extensively studied. Although chemical weapons have been banned under the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), there is an increased concern for chemical terrorism. Thus, it is important to understand their properties and toxicities, especially since some of these agents are not included in the CWC list. Nonetheless, to achieve this goal, the testing of a huge number of compounds is needed. Alternatively, in silico toxicology offers a great advantage for the rapid assessment of toxic compounds. Here, various in silico tools (TEST, VEGA, pkCSM ProTox-II) were used to estimate the acute oral toxicity (LD50) of different V-agents and compare them with experimental values. These programs underestimated the toxicity of V-agents, and certain V-agents were estimated to be relatively non-toxic. TEST was also used to estimate the physical properties and found to provide good approximations for densities, surface tensions and vapor pressures but not for viscosities. Thus, attention should be paid when interpreting and estimating the toxicities of V-agents in silico, and it is necessary to conduct future detailed experiments to understand their properties and develop effective countermeasures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contemporary ecological and climate crises have thrown into sharp relief debates around what roles and responsibilities, if any, international security bodies ought to have in addressing environment-related matters. Building on a wider catalogue of the United Nations Security Council's practice concerning the environment, in this article, we provide a snapshot of the Council's practice pertaining in particular to the environment and armed conflict. In addition to setting out key aspects relating to the personal, geographical and temporal scope of that practice, we identify four armed-conflict-related substantive themes arising in the Security Council's actions in this area: (1) relations between conflict and natural resources; (2) relations between conflict and adverse environment-related phenomena; (3) relations between conflict and chemical and biological weapons; and (4) adverse impacts of conflict on the environment. Through this examination, we aim in part to provide stakeholders with a more extensive and detailed basis on which to evaluate what actions the Council has taken – and, by inference, which actions it has not taken – with respect to the environment and armed conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frode Fonnum, a highly respected neuroscientist and toxicologist, has passed away at the age of 86. He was known for his groundbreaking research on neurotransmitters in the brain, particularly GABA and glutamate. Fonnum also played a crucial role in developing protective equipment against chemical weapons and studying environmental toxins. He was widely admired for his intellect, sense of humor, and supportiveness, and his wife, Marit Fonnum, was recognized for her unwavering support throughout his career. Fonnum's contributions to the field will be remembered and appreciated by colleagues worldwide. [Extracted from the article]

Based on Roscoe Pound's opinion, the notion of criminal responsibility is a person's obligation to pay retribution that will be received by the perpetrator from someone who has been harmed (the victim). Criminal liability is a person's responsibility for the crimes he commits. The purpose of criminal liability is to determine whether a person who has committed a crime can be held accountable or not. This article will discuss criminal liability for police negligence for the act of shooting tear gas at the Kanjuruhan stadium, where the negligence of the police was due to a lack of caution and carelessness in acting using force in police actions. Namely not being careful and acting without considering the risks in using chemical weapons in the form of tear gas. The use of tear gas should be guided by the principles stipulated in the Police Chief Regulation No. 1 of 2009 concerning the Use of Force in Police Actions. However, in practice the police were negligent and ignored the risks of using tear gas at the Kanjuruhan stadium. The form of the mistake is acting without considering the dangers and threats, and not predicting the possible consequences that will occur. Because his negligence in using tear gas at the Kanjuruhan Stadium had a detrimental impact on other people and on the Indonesian National Police, namely causing deaths and injuries. Due to the Kanjuruhan incident, many of the victims' families have asked for justice for the police's actions in the tear gas shooting at the Kanjuruhan stadium, so that the police actions in the tear gas shooting are considered to be the triggers for the deaths and injuries that need to be held criminally accountable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

TiO2-impregnated activated carbon was designed to adsorb and remove arsenic from water polluted by diphenylchloroarsine. The material showed an excellent efficiency to treat the contaminated water with diphenylchloroarsine perhaps because TiO2 and activated carbon have a collaborative removal of arsenic to adsorb diphenylchloroarsine and its hydrolysis product. In our study, several important factors on arsenic removal efficiency were evaluated including the adsorption time, initial concentration of arsenic, temperature and pH. The TiO2-impregnated activated carbon can achieve a good performance when it treats DA-contaminated water with the arsenic concentrations below 10 mg/mL in 1 h at pH of 7 and at the temperature ranging from 10 to 40 °C. A combination of FTIR, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller and energy-dispersive spectroscopy analyses further enables identification of the arsenic on the surfaces of TiO2-impregnated activated carbon. Therefore, the TiO2-impregnated activated carbon holds a promising prospect to deal with the polluted water caused by DA, one of chemical weapons abandoned by Japanese in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) is a significant component of the global governance structure and considered a gold standard international body with 193 member states and scientific divisions expected to adhere rigorously to objectivity and political neutrality. However, OPCW's reputation has recently been tarnished. Dissenting scientists from within the organization have raised serious questions about the integrity of an OPCW fact‐finding mission (FFM) investigating the alleged chemical attack in Douma, Syria on April 7, 2018. The OPCW FFMs are tainted in three ways: (1) they rely upon information provided via intermediaries connected to states that are belligerents in the war in Syria; (2) the organizational structure of an FFM excludes scientific and verification divisions of the OPCW; and (3) control of FFMs is held by a bureaucratic office staffed by career diplomats who are from states involved with the Syrian war. Furthermore, officials involved with the Douma FFM investigation report the following anomalies: (a) an original interim report was secretly altered in order to make an unsubstantiated suggestion that an alleged attack had occurred; (b) A U.S. delegation was allowed to brief the FFM, an action prohibited by the Chemical Weapons Convention; and (c) formal attempts by the inspectors to obtain transparency and dialog was rejected by the OPCW. Meanwhile, the United States and its allies have dismissed questions as Russian "disinformation" or as a "conspiracy theory." Overall, analysis of the alleged Douma attack and the OPCW's FFM supports the thesis that key international organizations have been effectively captured, or at the very least heavily influenced, by particular states that assume their own impartiality. This shortcoming poses a risk to international peace and security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For almost 60 years, the United States has tried to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in Cuba, using a variety of means, including chemical and biological agents. At the same time, their use has always been officially denied by Washington. The purpose of this article is to summarize the available sources proving the involvement of the United States, as well as the groups of the Cuban opposition created and supported by the US, in biological and chemical sabotage against both the economy and the people of Cuba. Sources, research methods. The author used a variety of open sources, including the statements by Cuban officials, materials from the Cuban and American press, declassified documents from the US government agencies, as well as public confessions of former CIA agents and Cuban opposition figures. The research method is the cross analysis. The discussion of the results. The declassified US documents show that the organizers of «Operation 40» and «Operation Mongoose» planned to use biological agents and parasitic plants against plantations of crops and livestock. Sugar exported to the USSR was also poisoned. In addition, the head of one of the Cuban terrorist organizations admitted that he had imported biological agents to Cuba, which provoked an epidemic of dengue hemorrhagic fever in 1981. The testimoies of several other former CIA agents also point to the use of African swine fever in 1971 to kill pigs in Cuba. The atypical course of the Dengue fever epidemic in 1981, as well as the absence of a strain (Dengue-2) of this virus in the Western Hemisphere at that time, indicate the planned nature of the sabotage, which resulted in an outbreak on the island. Conclusions. During the Cold War, the United States actively used chemical and biological agents against agriculture and the people of Cuba. The facts considered allow us to draw conclusions about the nature of the methods that the CIA used to organize and conduct biosabotage: such operations were planned «in the long run» and had large-scale goals – for example, to eliminate sugar production on the island or cause famine; highly contagious pathogens of human and animal diseases were used for biological sabotage; artificially caused outbreaks of epidemics and epizootics were disguised as natural ones; representatives of the local opposition, as well as mercenaries, were involved in the implementation of sabotage; to infect farm animals, vaccines contaminated with virulent strains directly at biofactories, as well as contaminated feed were used.

The civil war in Chad has become one of the most protracted conflicts on the African continent. Its gradual internationalization led to the participation of three foreign military contingents in an internal armed confrontation Libya has taken an active military part in the civil war in Chad since 1972. There were several indications in certain studies about the use of chemical weapons by the Libyan troops. In the realities of the 1980s, these allegations could be true, or they could be an element of some information campaign against Libya. The purpose of this article is to verify the reports of the use of chemical weapons in Chad. Sources, methods. The sources for the study were the UN documents, declassified CIA materials and media reports. Cross-analysis of the documents, as well as the historical reconstruction of background events were carried out. Discussion of the results and conclusions. The analysis of the sources showed that, to date, no material evidence of the use of chemical weapons by Libyan troops in Chad has been found. There were no testimonies of direct witnesses and victims. No investigations have been carried out. Two sources of dissemination of information about the use of chemical weapons in northern Chad have been identified. The first one is the representatives of one of the participants in the civil war, Hissene Habré, who held the post of president in N'Djamena and fought against the Libyan troops. Representatives of H. Habré made such statements in December 1986. They cannot be considered reliable. In this way, one of the parties to the civil war wanted to show that Chad was the victim of the aggression with the use of weapons prohibited by the Geneva Protocol of 1925. However, it was established that in 1986 Libya did not possess chemical weapons. The second source is the CIA reports retransmitted to the public space in September 1987 about the alleged deliveries of chemical weapons to Libya from Iran. The reliability of these reports is doubtful. The «Iranian trace» has also not been proven. In 1987, during the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988), chemical weapons were used against Iran, but the military-chemical potential of Iran itself has not been established. However, such an accusation organically fit into the policy of containment of «rogue states» pursued by the administration of US President Ronald Reagan. In this article, cross-analysis methods have been tested. They have shown their effectiveness in retrospective investigations.

This paper aims to answer why chemical weapons such as Sarin and Chlorine are used as a primary basis of International Organizations to carry out the humanitarian intervention in the Syrian conflict. In this case, the humanitarian approach related to freedom from fear echoed by Galtung further elaborated with International Organizations Theory. Based on an investigation conducted by an International Organization, namely, the United Nations, found not only Bashar Al-Assad's regime used chemical weapons but also the opposition. However, the scale and intensity of their use were different. Instead of targeting the enemy using chemical weapons, the primarily affected victims are civilians who indicated support the opposition and vice versa. International organizations then tried to negotiate with Assad's regime, the often party uses chemical weapons, and also the opposition to avoid using chemical weapons. Next followed by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, which opened humanitarian diplomacy with Assad's regime and the opposition to stop using chemical weapons. Cooperation between the United Nations and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons has successfully suppressed chemical weapons use by imposing international sanctions. However, sometimes the vetoes of allies allied with the Assad regime have the effect to imposing sanction on Assad's regime.

Abstract Objective Diagnosis of small airway disease on computed tomography (CT) scans is challenging in patients with a history of chemical warfare exposure. We developed a software package based on different methodologies to identify and quantify small airway disease in CT images. The primary aim was to identify the best automatic methodology for detecting small airway disease in CT scans of Iran-Iraq War victims of chemical warfare. Methods This retrospective case–control study enrolled 46 patients with a history of chemical warfare exposure and 27 controls with inspiratory/expiratory (I/E) CT scans and spirometry tests. Image data were automatically segmented, and inspiratory images were registered into the expiratory images' frame using the locally developed software. Parametric response mapping (PRM) and air trapping index (ATI) mapping were performed on the CT images. Conventional QCT methods, including expiratory/inspiratory mean lung attenuation (E/I MLA) ratio, normal density E/I (ND E/I) MLA ratio, attenuation volume Index (AVI), %low attenuation areas (LAA)