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This article addresses the use of the auxiliary do in affirmative declarative clauses (so-called periphrastic do) during the early stages of the shift from Irish, the Celtic language spoken in Ireland, to English as the more common vernacular language there. A corpus compiled from the digital edition of the 1641 Depositions, a collection of witness testimonies recorded after a rebellion in Ireland, is used to examine the functions of periphrastic do. The focus is on possible habitual uses, since contemporary Irish English allows for the marking of habitual aspect in ways which differ significantly from the marking of habituality in other varieties of English. The data show that a periphrasis consisting of do plus the infinitive of a lexical verb (V) is often used in the 1641 Depositions in combination with markers of duration, yielding a habitual interpretation. It is argued that such uses, whose existence in the superstratal variety, Early Modern British English, has not been established, provided the conditions for the exaptation of do as a dedicated marker of habitual aspect, on the model of the habitual categories found in the verbal system of Irish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the sixth century, Celtic peregrini (wandering scholars) emerged from Britain and Ireland to establish monastic centres for mission and evangelism. British New Monastic expression would no doubt benefit from increased adoption of their distinctive monastic practices. These practices include the Celtic understanding of the sacramental universe - all creation steeped in the presence of God - all pointing towards the ultimate glory of his kingdom. In risky living they undertook both physical and inner spiritual journeys. They emerged from monastic schools and long periods of seasonal formation. They embraced rhythms of ebb and flow, searching for silence and solitude, to first breathe in the Holy Spirit, before enthusiastically embarking on evangelism. They drew boundaries - encircling the sacred core, whilst keeping out distractions. They developed frameworks of daily prayer and Scripture reading, based on the Psalmody, intentionally building scaffolding - Rules of Life and vows, constantly refocussing themselves on their ultimate goal of prayer without ceasing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of this study is a particular type of compound preposition found in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. The compound consists of a simple preposition followed by a noun which it governs, the noun in question often pertaining to human perception or activity. The membership of this 'nominal' prepositional class, as will be seen, is quite extensive, so that the category in question, as well as refining the reach, and extending enormously the range, of prepositional activity, adds a separate, often somewhat picturesque, dimension to syntax in the languages in question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides a critical review of a ten-chapter volume dealing with various aspects of the study of place names. Conceived as a concise but comprehensive reference source for students in toponomastics, the book has two distinct focuses, namely historical toponomastics (i.e. the study of place names within the framework of historical linguistics and contact language theory) and social toponomastics, but also covers the study of toponymy in the context of historical geography, language documentation, and cartography. Despite the fact that the book presents a good survey of some topics and contains relevant references to scholarly publications, which may be useful for students, it displays numerous issues in the chapters related to etymology, language change, and historical linguistics, which may give the readers a distorted idea of the research practices normally used in the corresponding sub-fields of toponomastics. In some cases, the analysis proposed in the book lacks arguments and further explanations, while in others, it is simply based on an a priori fallacy.

In the article the name of the West Bohemian river Mže and its tributaries are analyzed in etymological perspective. In the first plan their Slavic etymologies are analyzed. In the second plan, possibilities of their pre-Slavic origin are verified. In the case of the hydronyms Mže and Úhlava their Germanic and Celtic etymologies are discussed, while the names of other tributaries are of Slavic origin. Finally the process of replacement of the hydronymic nomenclature during changes of dominant languages is generalized in the typological perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents some new insights into the Celtic development of the inherited nasal sonorants that modify the reconstruction offered in Die Vertretung der indogermanischen liquiden und nasalen Sonanten im Keltischen (Innsbruck 1987). The new reconstruction not only identifies a unitary, Common-Celtic vocalization, but also explains the Goidelic realizations of the sonorants in a very simple way by taking into account word-stress position, phonetic context and relative chronology. It appears that the inherited nasal sonorants did not vocalize at once, but in at least two different Celtic stages, as it was the case with several other sound-changes. Although this paper's main concern is to revise the vocalization of the so-called 'short' nasal sonorants, it also recapitulates the developments of the 'long nasal sonorants, i.e., those accompanied by an Indo-European laryngeal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prepositional form and function in Irish, as in other Modern Celtic languages, are topics of much significance. In Modern Irish numerous simple prepositions not only form compounds with possessive forms of personal pronouns but additionally marshal an impressive array of 'conjugated' forms corresponding to the various grammatical persons. Prepositions also play a crucial role in indicating aspect and are involved in passive/ reflexive roles with the verbal noun. This paper offers an overview of the functioning of a selection of important prepositions in the language and provides examples by way of illustration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horns, a form of headgear carried by Bovidae, have ethical and economic implications for ruminant production species such as cattle and goats. Hornless (polled) individuals are preferred. In cattle, four genetic variants (Celtic, Friesian, Mongolian and Guarani) are associated with the polled phenotype, which are clustered in a 300‐kb region on chromosome 1. As the variants are intergenic, the functional effect is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine if the POLLED variants affect chromatin structure or disrupt enhancers using publicly available data. Topologically associating domains (TADs) were analyzed using Angus‐ and Brahman‐specific Hi‐C reads from lung tissue of an Angus (Celtic allele) cross Brahman (horned) fetus. Predicted bovine enhancers and chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing peaks for histone modifications associated with enhancers (H3K27ac and H3K4me1) were mapped to the POLLED region. TADs analyzed from Angus‐ and Brahman‐specific Hi‐C reads were the same, therefore, the Celtic variant does not appear to affect this level of chromatin structure. The Celtic variant is located in a different TAD from the Friesian, Mongolian, and Guarani variants. Predicted enhancers and histone modifications overlapped with the Guarani and Friesian variants but not the Celtic or Mongolian variants. This study provides insight into the mechanisms of the POLLED variants for disrupting horn development. These results should be validated using data produced from the horn bud region of horned and polled bovine fetuses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Antropo is the property of Antropo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper sheds light upon the conflicting, religious undertones of the two largest football clubs in Scotland, Rangers Football Club and Celtic Football Club, that is fuelled by the fanbases’ cultural dependencies within each association. These football clubs, known nationally across Scotland, have an established conflict of ideologies; beliefs that go far behind the goals of the football pitch. The main thrust of this paper, then, displays a compelling focus on the self-identity established through sport, and in this instance, football, while so too heightening the pertinence of the politics within this playing field.

McWhorter (2002) argued that contact with Norse caused simplifications in English grammar that set English apart from other Germanic languages. This paper focuses on one of the losses McWhorter attributed to the linguistic impact of the Scandinavian invasions, External Possessors. An investigation of electronic Old and Early Middle English corpora reveals that the construction was already on the decline in the Old English period, and that Norse contact cannot explain the Early Middle English data. There is no support for the view that the loss of the construction spread from the Scandinavianized areas southwards. The facts are consistent with the view that while Celtic influence did not cause the loss of the construction in Old English, Celtic speakers shifting to English may have played a role in triggering the initial decline of the construction. Study of non-standard variants of other Germanic languages is needed to increase our understanding of the history of External Possessor constructions in those languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Celtic Christianity significantly contributed to the medieval Christian mission in the Christianization of Britain and Ireland. The Celtic missionary monks, particularly in the sixth century, set out in groups, traveled across Europe, and carried out the most remarkable missionary movement. The Celtic missionaries employed preaching methods that included non-Christians and Christians they saw as corrupted. This study examines the introduction of Christianity to Britain and Western Europe, as well as the religious and political developments that occurred in these regions until the seventh century. It also discusses the concept of peregrinatio, which describes the journeys of Celtic missionaries to spread the message of Christ. It analyzes this movement through the three key figures of the Celtic missionary movement: St. Columba (520-597), St. Aidan (590-651), and St. Columbanus (543-615). Finally, it highlights the similarities and differences among the names mentioned above in carrying out their missionary activities, including the materials they used, the problems they encountered, and the methods they used to achieve the missionary objective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article considers the world-famous rivalry between two Scottish based football clubs, Rangers and Celtic. It reflects on dominant representations of the origins, evolution and meaningfulness of this clash. A critical reading of these representations demonstrates they largely ignore or simplify the significance of history for this contest. This study contends that recognising the importance of aspects of Scottish/British imperialism especially contributes to a more informed understanding of these totemic clubs' foundations, heritages and supporter enmities and throws light on contemporary postcolonial socio-cultural and political identities in Scotland generally. Scrutinising both football commentary and contemporary artistic representations of past imperialist endeavours – in particular, the Great Tapestry of Scotland and Black Watch– contributes to a better understanding not only of this sporting rivalry but also to how Scotland's role as junior partner with England in the British Empire project, particularly in relation to Ireland, is remembered, contested, overlooked or celebrated in contemporary Scottish society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Science and technology have been associated with modern Enlightenment, in a manner that elevated the rational mind over emotions and the body, a separation of the subjective mind from the object of observation, universal categories, objective observation, and linear causality. These assumptions, consolidated by Descartes and then Kant, have underpinned the philosophies of science, economics, policy, and political theory. They have shaped the modern world and enabled corporate freedom to exploit all 'resources' in the name of consumerism and global trade. Idealism has alienated subjective rationality from an idealised universal created world. In contrast, ancient indigenous ways of knowing are emerging as better exemplars of the interrelationship between individuals, communities, and organic and anorganic life forms. Celtic shapeshifters and praise poems forge an interwoven dance of geology, weather, plants, animals, and humanity with wisdom and politics. The Māori concept of whakapapa is the kin relations of everything, tied into complex claves as a taxonomy of familial ties. Animism was understood as pagan misidentification by modernity, but if the alienation set out by modern linear physics is severed, then the intra and inter-relationship of strata, atmosphere, ocean, and species are better relayed by indigenous philosophy than by outdated, colonial, modern assumptions. Celtic and Māori pantheism show us how entangled we are, and how special relationships are in place that last across generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As commonly used in its moral sense I will, for the purposes of this paper, take the concept of "conscience" to be the inherent ability of every healthy human being to perceive what is right and what is wrong and, on the strength of this perception, to control, monitor, evaluate and execute their actions. Such values as right or wrong, good or evil, just or unjust, and fair or unfair have existed throughout human history and are also shaped by an individual's cultural, political and economic environment. The medieval penitential literature offers just one such historical snapshot. These manuals or guides for confessors, including prayers, lists of questions to be asked by the confessor, and penances to be assigned for various sins were an integral part of the practice of private penance which began in the Celtic Church and later spread through Europe with the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon missions. Penitential books for use by confessors in private penance appeared in the sixth through ninth centuries. These texts were not as a rule decreed by episcopal synods. Their authority generally rested on the reputation of their compiler or editor. Public penances were assigned for public sins that caused scandal for the church. Private penances were assigned for private sins or matters of conscience. The Penitentials were generally more flexible than the churches' ancient canonical penitential system which they largely replaced. While later European Penitentials tended to provide more complete guidance for the confessor instead of mere lists of rules and penalties; such instruction is not entirely absent from the earlier Irish texts and ancillary documents. Thus, the goal of penance in the early middle ages was not only sacramental but also didactic. It would have been an occasion to inculcate Christian beliefs, an opportunity to model proper Christian behaviour and by extension a key part of the formation of conscience. As was the case with later expressions of casuistry (Etym. Latin casus, case, or problem to be solved) the purpose of the penitential literature was thus to adapt and apply the unchangeable norms of Christian morality to the changing and variable circumstances of human life albeit in somewhat rudimentary fashion. As such this literary genre and the pastoral practices stemming from it are a valid and worthy object of any historical study and theological analysis concerning the 'formation of conscience.' [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A La Tène kultúra Kr. e. 4–3. századi elterjedése az Alföldön, annak kapcsolatrendszere és viszonya a helyi, illetve szomszédos kulturális entitásokhoz továbbra is számos kérdést vet fel. Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok vármegyében zajló terepi és kutatói munkának köszönhetően bővülő késő vaskori régészeti leletanyag rendszeres feldolgozásával a korábbi évekhez képest jóval teljesebb képet alkothatunk a korszakban zajló folyamatokról. A Szolnoktól keletre fekvő Szajol település határában végzett terepbejárás és fémkeresőzés során egy maszkos üveggyöngy került elő. A korábban azonosított maszkos gyöngyök elsősorban az Északi-középhegység és az Alföld átmeneti zónájában, a Dunakanyarban, valamint a Felső-Tisza-vidéken kerültek elő. A jelen közleményben bemutatásra kerülő példány mostani ismereteink szerint a legdélebbi elfordulása ennek a tárgytípusnak Magyarország területén. The spread of the La Tène culture during the 4th–3th c. BC in the in the Great Hungarian Plain its system of relations and its relationship with local and neighbouring cultural entities still raises a number of questions. Thanks to the regular field works and researches we can have a more detailed picture of the La Tène period of Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok County. During a field walk and metal detecting a new face-bead shard come to light from east of Szolnok at Szajol-Széle site II. This fragment is probably the most southern occurrence of this time of beads at the moment. From this aspect it is necessary to publish this freshly occurred archaeological find. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Indogermanische Forschungen: Zeitschrift für Indogermanistik und allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Much progress has been made in the last 200 years with regard to understanding the origins and mechanisms of sound change. It is hypothesized that many sound changes originate in biomechanical constraints on speech production or in the misperception of sounds. These production and perception pressures explain a wide range of sound changes across the world's languages, yet we also know that sound change is not inevitable. For example, similar phonological structures have undergone change in many languages yet remained stable in others. In this study, we examine how typologically unusual contrasts are maintained in the face of intense pressures, in order to uncover the potential biomechanical, perceptual, and sociolinguistic factors that facilitate the maintenance of typologically unusual contrasts. We focus on secondary articulation contrasts in Scottish Gaelic rhotics, triangulating auditory, acoustic, and articulatory data in order to better understand the maintenance of contrast in the face of multidimensional typological challenges. Here, individual-level articulatory strategies are combined with contextual prosodic information in order to maintain acoustic and auditory distinctiveness across three rhotic phonemes. We highlight the need to more comprehensively consider typologically unusual and minority languages in order to test the limits of generalizations about crosslinguistic phonetic typology.* [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Linguistica Lithuanica is the property of Institute of the Lithuanian Language and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This new book by Xavier Delamarre is the first volume of the dictionary of Gaulish nominal bases. Since onomastics is the source for most of its data, this book is of interest for the readers of this journal. Apart from Gaulish, the author considers data of other ancient Celtic languages such as Lepontic, Celtiberian, or British (Brittonic). The review surveys methodological aspects underlying this research, and particularly a number of questions related to suffixation in relation to the most recent research on Celtic morphology and word-formation. Undoubtedly, the book is the most complete collection of Gaulish onomastics up to date, although a number of missing forms can be brought forward, which is to be expected due to the amount of data at our disposal, and selection of several examples as Celtic should be questioned. The text contains etymological comments, and some of them appear in the book for the first time which deserves special attention. The dictionary is a very important contribution to Celtic studies in general, and to Gaulish onomastics in particular.

Centring on embodiment, gendered eco-spiritual responses to nature, enchantment and environmental crises in the Anthropocene, this paper explores engagement with nature as a spiritual experience and resource through 'Celtic' Christian prayer walks in the Isle of Man. Web-based and printed materials for the walks are analysed for references to nature and environmental responsibility, and the complexities of personal, gendered and theological relation to nature and the environment are explored through participants' accounts. The analysis is attentive to participants professing Christian faith and institutional affiliation as well as those without affiliation or faith, and to their gendered experience. Themes identified include nature-inspired 'Celtic' spirituality; personal relation to the non-human (the divine, nature and nature-as-divine); the landscape as a liminal 'thin place'; and social and environmental responsibility. The paper concludes by signalling the potential for bridging between pilgrimage-centred enchantment and eco-spirituality in order to mobilise engagement with and for the environment in the Anthropocene, including environmental conservation activities, lobbying or protest. Whilst eschewing gendered stereotypes, empirical findings evidence gendered patterns of engagement and responses to different expressions of spirituality. Attention to these differences could facilitate the engaging and mobilising of different cohorts of pilgrims with environmental agendas, inspiring personal and collective environmental action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The undoubtedly Gaulish personal name Loucita, attested in the Norico-Pannonian onomastic area, is particularly interesting from the point of view of its word formation. Unambiguous parallels for such a derivative are difficult to find in Celtic onomastic material, the only possible but very uncertain candidate being a Goidelic river name Ἀργίτα, recorded by Ptolemy. Outside of Celtic, the name of a Germanic seeress Vel(a)eda, if it goes back to *u̯elētā- (which is a probable but not the only possibility), is a potential case in point, which would then unavoidably imply that Loucita < *leu̯k-ēt-ā- must somehow be based on the oblique stem with a generalised length of the suffixal vowel (*leu̯k-ēt-) taken over from the nominative singular, where it was inherited. Since the category of lexicalised, synchronically unproductive dethematic *-et-stems in Celtic typically displays exactly that phenomenon, this etymological interpretation cannot be dismissed as ultimately improbable. Another reasonable possibility, however, would be to start from a feminine abstract *lou̯k-i-/*leu̯k-i- ‘brightness, lustre’ (itself based on the thematic possessive adjective *leu̯k-ó- by external derivation), to which Loucita could then represent a barbātus-type adjectival derivative *leu̯k-i-to- ‘having lustre,’ exactly parallel to the type seen in Indo-Iranian colour adjectives. It is argued that the latter type probably does not represent thematic possessives of t-abstracts to i-stem adjectives but, contrary to the communis opinion, rather goes back to to-possessives of i-stem abstracts. Under both analyses, however, the name is an important addition to the Proto-Indo-European type of derivative in *-ito-, so far unambiguously identified only within Indo-Iranian.

«Pangur Bán» is probably the best know poem in Celtic studies, and a poem that tends to become increasingly more popular to audiences outside of Ireland. However, the anonymous, medieval poem has been cherished throughout history for a wide range of poetic, philosophical, intellectual and educational reasons. To inquire into the longevity and popularity of a marginal gloss on his cat by an Irish monk in a German monastery in the ninth century seems appropriate at a time when contemporary literature and applied hermeneutics of all kinds tend to dominate the literary discourses. This essay relates the historical poem to its many translations, for example by Paul Muldoon and Seamus Heaney, and current literary discourses. Why has this enigmatic jeu d’esprit been translated so frequently and why are these translations important? This essay argues that «Anonymous: Myself and Pangur», Muldoon’s version of «Pangur Bán», can be read as a prismatic poem for postmodernist concerns, in his own poetry and in recent theories.

Double nasal presents—presents containing both a nasal infix and a nasal suffix—are found in Greek (type λιμπάνω 'leave'), Celtic (e.g., OIr. ro·finnadar (< *wind-n-) 'get to know'), and Germanic (Go. du-ginnan (← *-gunnan < *gund-n-) 'begin'). It is argued here that all such formations have a common origin. The starting point was the nasal-infix present of the root *ghed- 'grasp', which originally had the form *gh(n̥)néd- / *ghn̥d-´. With the reinterpretation of the root as *ghend- , the strong stem of the nasal-infix present was remade to *ghn̥d-né / ó- , and in the post-IE period the pattern was extended to other nasal-infix presents (*lin(é)kw- → *linkw-né / ó- , *u̯in(é)d- → *u̯ind-né / ó- , etc.). A corollary of the analysis is that the -a- of the Greek and Armenian presents in *-ane / o- (< *-n̥ne / o-) is epenthetic, and that the absence of a nasal in the root syllable of Arm. lkʿanem , gtanem , etc. is secondary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article the Slavic term *ǫb(ъ)lъ ‘source, spring; well’ is analyzed from the point of view of its word‑formation and etymology. The discussion of preceding etymologies leads to the formulation of a new etymology, based on the internal analysis of *ǫ‑b(ъ)lъ ‘source, spring; well’ as *n̥‑bl̥ o ‘unmuddy’ = ‘clear (water)’. The identified cognates in Baltic *balā, Germanic *pōla‑, and possibly Continental Celtic *bolā, all ‘swamp, marsh’, imply the initial, ‘non‑Indo- ‑European’, *b‑. Finally, it is tested, if the etymon could represent an extension in ‑l‑ from the root *gu̯ ebh ‑ ‘marsh, swamp’ in the zero‑grade of ablaut. The answer is ‘yes’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

«Pangur Bán» is probably the best know poem in Celtic studies, and a poem that tends to become increasingly more popular to audiences outside of Ireland. However, the anonymous, medieval poem has been cherished throughout history for a wide range of poetic, philosophical, intellectual and educational reasons. To inquire into the longevity and popularity of a marginal gloss on his cat by an Irish monk in a German monastery in the ninth century seems appropriate at a time when contemporary literature and applied hermeneutics of all kinds tend to dominate the literary discourses. This essay relates the historical poem to its many translations, for example by Paul Muldoon and Seamus Heaney, and current literary discourses. Why has this enigmatic jeu d'esprit been translated so frequently and why are these translations important? This essay argues that «Anonymous: Myself and Pangur», Muldoon's version of «Pangur Bán», can be read as a prismatic poem for postmodernist concerns, in his own poetry and in recent theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past quarter-century, Celtic music has slowly declined on the global stage and been replaced as the de facto pan-European world music by a bricolage of Romani, klezmer and Balkan styles. These primarily East European musics have been adopted, adapted, fused, confused and ultimately claimed by northwestern Europeans as part of a wider project of reimagining their own identities in the post-Cold-war era. The music industry has not given a name to this trend, but the contributors to this volume have come to call it the ‘New Old Europe Sound’.

A noun *york- has been reconstructed as the PIE name of the 'roedeer'. This paper offers a review of the sometimes unexpected history of this root-noun and its derivatives in those daughter languages that have kept them: Greek ζορκ-, δορκ- (1), Celtic *york-, *yurk- (2), probably Germanic *raiχ- (3), possibly Indic ś-ya- (4). Unrelated to *york-, on the other hand, are Armenian ors 'hunt, game' (8), and probably Latin hircus (5), Luwian irwa- (6), Tocharian yerkwantala* (7). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work deals with a number of arguably misinterpreted names found on inscriptions from Emona in Central Slovenia. While many of them have been recently attributed to an Indo-European, otherwise unknown dialect (associated with onomastic data referred to as “Iggian” or “North Adriatic”), the author shows that contact linguistics and Celtic dialectology are instrumental in their correct analysis, and that they all can be classified as either Eastern Gaulish or Italic. In the author’s view, existence of such linguistic or onomastic systems as “Iggian” or “North-Adriatic” is uneconomic and based on alleged phonetic and morphological features that remain unconvincing. An in-depth analysis of the names, including some novel readings of several Pannonian inscriptions, reveal that they are often the product of scribal misunderstandings or lack of experience, which can be explained based on the achievements of historical and typological phonetics and morphophonology in a wide Indo-European perspective. Historically, the studied names bear witness to the impact of late Venetic migrations to synchronically Celtic-speaking urban nuclei: the analysis shows that the Venetic layer seems to be superficial in Emona and mostly consists of forms attested elsewhere, which are occasionally reflected as they would be perceived by native speakers of a Celtic language. As for the names of Gaulish ancestry attested in Emona, they seem to have been transmitted by Gauls who were literate in Latin and well aware of the standardised transcription of Gaulish names. The analysis reveals regular differences between the scribal traditions of Ig and Šmarata, which, in their turn, support the phonetical and morphological argumentation.

Using etymological methods, the present study has identified five Sinitic and Uralic shared etymologies. These five etymologies form a rhyme correspondence. This regular sound change validates the etymological connection between Sinitic and Uralic. The Finnic term for 'sky' is among these five etymologies. It is demonstrated that this word root should be aboriginal in Sino-Uralic languages.