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Globally, large mammals are in decline. Biological traits including low population densities and longer generation times make them particularly susceptible. Their losses can have wide-ranging ecological consequences, including dramatic reductions in total heterotrophic energy use. To determine the key drivers of variation in energy use, we calculated daily rates of energy flow across the globe for 241 ecological communities, encompassing 441 large mammal species, using camera trap inventories. These were scaled up from individual metabolic rates and compared with various climate, anthropogenic, geographic, and species richness variables using three analytical methods: model selection, spatial autoregression, and a multiple regression method that completely removes multicollinearity known as least-squares orthogonalization. Community energy use is significantly lower in the Neotropics and Australasia than in the Afrotropics and Eurasia. This pattern mirrors the spatial distribution of megafaunal extinction intensity during the Late Pleistocene. Rates not being greatly reduced in the Nearctic is a notable exception to this pattern, and is likely due to the high abundances of certain species not present in the other highly-impacted realms. There are also strong negative correlations between community per-gram rates of energy flow and species richness, indicating that megafauna persist mainly in more speciose communities. The strong geographic differences that dominate energy use patterns indicate that past mammal extinctions are the ultimate cause of modern energetic variation in large mammal communities. If so, then ongoing losses of large mammals will greatly impact community and ecosystem functioning.

This paper outlines the practice of a novel digital method in animal geographies: etho-ethnographic citizen science. I describe a project using this participatory method with local residents in inner-city London, where we worked together to use camera traps to record video footage of red fox behaviour. The research sought to build an etho-ethnographic account of fox life by tethering data collection and interpretation to local knowledge. The paper focuses on the familial relations of one particular fox, a young male living on an allotment, who plotholders call Sonny. It begins by outlining how research objectives emerged through the process of collaborative research design with plotholders, premised on their own knowledge of fox personalities, and their storied accounts of individual foxes. It then considers how the practical planning of camera placement was directed through the plotholders own socioecological knowledge of the site. Lastly, it outlines how participants continual use of the traps, and their own analysis of footage, embeds digital data within vernacular understandings of Sonny's world. In doing so the paper outlines how etho-ethnographic citizen science can potentially amplify, affirm and digitise vernacular knowledges of urban fox ethologies and geographies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The degree of prey sociality reflects trade-offs between predation risk, and competition for mates and resources. Consequently, the degree of sociality is predicted to differ spatiotemporally. Variations in nychthemeral sociality are, however, understudied. We assessed the activity of solitary, territorial black wildebeest bulls (Connochaetes gnou) over rutting and non-rutting seasons. We predicted that solitary bulls would reduce their nocturnal use of territorial stands and join herds to reduce predation risk from nocturnally hunting lions (Panthera leo), but that these responses would differ across rutting and non-rutting seasons. We used camera trap data and modelled solitary bull and herd activity over 24-hour daily cycles, across rutting and non-rutting seasons. We calculated the proportion of images with solitary bulls and herds across nocturnal and diurnal periods, across both seasons. We show that solitary bulls are predominantly diurnal across both seasons, but the probability of nocturnal detection is higher in the rutting than in the non-rutting season. Furthermore, we recorded a lower proportion of solitary bulls to herds at night in the non-rutting relative to the rutting season. Thus, wildebeest bulls may trade-off predation risk for mate acquisition during the rutting season but reduce risky solitary behaviour during the non-rutting season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study addresses the growing risk of tick bites, which is becoming more prevalent due to changes in landscape, leading to an increase in wildlife that supports tick populations, raising the risk of disease transmission to humans and animals. To better understand this, we explored the ecology of ticks by examining the relationship between wildlife presence and tick abundance in two regions: an alpine hunting district and a natural park in the Apennines. We used camera traps to monitor wildlife and conducted tick sampling nearby. Additionally, we considered factors like altitude, vegetation, and climate. Our findings highlight the significant role of altitude and wildlife presence—both influenced by habitat and land management—in the global abundance of ticks in the environment. In particular, the species most impacting tick presence was roe deer. These insights could be valuable for managing natural environments, helping to reduce the risk of tick-borne diseases, and they show the utility of camera trap data, which are gathered with great detail and little disturbance of wildlife. The increase in acarological risk of tick bites is significantly driven by profound changes in landscape, which alter the density and distribution of wildlife that support tick populations. As a result of habitat shifts and land abandonment, which create environments conducive to tick proliferation, the risk of disease transmission to humans and animals is increasing. In this context, it is important to explore tick ecology by applying a comprehensive methodology. In this study, we examined the relationship between wildlife temporal occupancy and tick abundance in two distinct regions: an alpine hunting district and a natural park in the Apennines. For each sampling point, we calculated wildlife temporal occupancy from camera trap pictures and estimated ticks' abundance from dragging transects in the area immediately surrounding camera traps. In modelling the relationship between those two variables, we included abiotic factors such as saturation deficit, normalized difference vegetation index, and altitude. Results show the importance of altitude and wildlife temporal occupancy (itself related to different habitat and land management characteristics) on the ecology of questing ticks. If employed in management decisions for natural environments, such information is useful to modulate the acarological risk and thus the risk of tick-borne pathogens' transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Understanding the activity patterns of snow leopards is important for the conservation of this species, but the activity patterns of snow leopards in the Qilian Mountain National Park (Qinghai area) are largely unknown. Therefore, we used camera trap data for snow leopards and analyzed activity patterns at different time scales and under different weather conditions. The results demonstrate the patterns of regional snow leopard activity and play an important role in the management and conservation of snow leopards in the region. In recent years, there has been growing concern about the condition of snow leopards. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia), an apex predator of alpine ecosystems, is essential for the structural and functional stability of ecosystems. Monitoring of snow leopards' activity patterns based on camera traps in the Qilian Mountain National Park (Qinghai area) between August 2020 to October 2023 was performed. The results showed that autumn is the peak period of snow leopard activity, especially in September when the frequency of activity is the highest, and there is one peak in the frequency of snow leopard daily activity in the time period of 18:00–22:00, while the highest overlap of the daily activity curves of snow leopards in different months was from spring to autumn (Δ = 0.97), and there were significant differences in diurnal activity rhythm between spring and autumn (p = 0.002). Snow leopards prefer sunny days, and they tend to be active at temperatures of −10–9 °C. Our research aimed to uncover the activity patterns of snow leopards at different scales within the study area and provide data for further studies on snow leopards and other wildlife by researchers. This study can be used to gain a comprehensive understanding of the ecological characteristics of snow leopards and to assess their habitats, and it will also serve as a reference for the local wildlife management authorities in formulating snow leopard conservation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although previously close to extirpation in the southeastern United States, American black bear (Ursus americanus) abundance and distribution have increased with habitat management and harvest regulation. The north Georgia black bear population, the most abundant and widely distributed in the state, is currently being exposed to pressures from increasing anthropogenic disturbances, such as recreation and vehicle traffic. We evaluated the effects of environmental factors and anthropogenic activity on habitat use of black bears within a wildlife management area open to public recreation. We used detection/non‐detection data from camera surveys conducted at 448 locations from April to December 2023 to fit hierarchical single‐species occupancy models. Black bear detection was best explained by Julian date, its quadratic effect, and weekly human activity index. Detection increased through the spring, peaked in June, and declined throughout late summer and fall. In contrast to detection, occupancy was not affected by seasonal differences in black bear activity. Occupancy increased with increasing elevation, distance to water, and distance to high‐use recreation areas. The spatial distribution of food resources likely contributed to the observed black bear occupancy pattern related to elevation and distance to water, while human disturbance in the study area also influenced black bear occupancy. Thus, our results suggest that in a landscape open to public recreation, black bear occupancy was driven by a combination of environmental and anthropogenic factors. Identifying patterns of occupancy at a scale typical of management provides important information for managing black bear populations throughout the large, connected network of national forests in the Appalachian region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ongoing habitat loss and species extinctions require managers to implement and quantify the effectiveness of conservation actions for protecting biodiversity. Fencing, when done properly, is an important management tool for conservation in landscapes where wildlife and domestic animals co‐occur, potentially enhancing habitat use through selective exclusion of domestic species. For instance, the fencing of forest patches in the Neotropics is expected to reduce the degradation of understory vegetation by cattle, releasing these resources for the native community of browsers and fruit consumers. Here, we implemented an ecological experiment using a before‐after control‐impact design to quantify the effect of cattle exclusion on encounter probability of the native community of browsers and fruit consumers, and percent ground cover in multifunctional landscapes of the Colombian Orinoquía. We built 14 km of wildlife‐permeable fences along forest edges in four forest patches (i.e. blocks) containing control and fenced (treatment) sites. We installed 33 camera traps to obtain information about wildlife and cattle encounter probabilities, before and after the fences were constructed. We used Bayesian generalised linear mixed effects models to quantify the effect of fences via the interaction between the time period (before and after the fences were built) and treatment (control or fenced sites). Fencing was effective at reducing encounter probabilities of cattle in the treated sites, and it had a positive impact on relative encounter probabilities of four of seven studied wildlife species (herbivores including the black agouti [dry season only], lowland tapir [dry season only] and spotted paca [both seasons] and an omnivore, the South American coati [rainy season only]). The effect of fencing was negative for the collared peccary but only during the dry season. No statistically significant effect was detected for the white‐lipped peccary or white‐tailed deer. Synthesis and applications: We provide experimental evidence that fences are effective at selectively excluding cattle and increasing encounter rates of wild browsers and fruit consumers in forest patches where these species co‐occur with cattle. Our results highlight an important application of fencing ecology in Neotropical forests, where the implementation of wildlife‐permeable fences is feasible due to smaller body sizes of wildlife compared to domestic animals such as cattle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding species coexistence requires information about how species interact and partition their ecological niche. Niches of closely related species tend to be quite similar and thereby, when syntopic, overlap can result in competition when shared resources are limiting. Brocket deer of tropical forests are ecologically similar species due to convergence or relatedness. As a group, what little is known about their ecology suggests spatial and temporal niche separation while dietary differences among species remain largely unknown. The possibility of competition has been suggested, as it is rare for more than two species to co‐occur. If competition is important, then it may limit syntopy of more species and its importance should increase with relatedness between species. Based on analyses of faecal samples, camera traps, and stable isotopes and multidimensional analysis of niche space, we test spatial, temporal and dietary niche differences and compare niche breadth in two syntopic species pairs: Mazama rufa with M. nana (both of subtribe Odocoileina) and M. jucunda (Odocoileina) with Subulo gouazoubira (Blastocerina). In 2007–2008 and 2017–2019, 240 faecal samples and 375 records were collected in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Spatial partitioning among both species pairs was found, with S. gouazoubira and M. nana having greater niche breadth, which may permit or facilitate coexistence. Odocoileina tend to be nocturnal, while Blastocerina tend to be diurnal, which suggests that phylogeny may influence species coexistence. Furthermore, the species tended to overlap with respect to diet. These results suggest interference competition avoidance by niche partitioning at the level of habitat and time, allowing coexistence. Thereby, despite the morphological similarities, brocket deer species of evolutionarily convergent subtribes preserve differences in ecological niche dimensions that facilitate the coexistence of their populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We document 26 incidents of sunning behavior in 5 species of Accipitridae, including Crested Eagle (Morphnus guianensis), Black Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus tyrannus), Ornate Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), Roadside Hawk (Rupornis magnirostris), and White Hawk (Pseudastur albicollis), during a camera-trap survey conducted in Madre de Dios, Peru, in 2014. The sunning behavior was observed in forest clearings along logging trails and on a dirt road. We recorded 2 high-intensity sunning postures: "full-spreadeagle," in which the bird lies horizontally on the ground with wings outstretched, tail fanned, and head somewhat raised; and "full-spread," in which the bird stands while holding its wings out at right angles to the body. Sunning is a maintenance behavior observed in many bird species and has been reported in Accipitriformes in various habitats, but it is not commonly observed in tropical rainforests because of low visibility. Our camera traps recorded sunning behavior from 0931 h to 1400 h, a period in which ambient temperature increased until reaching its maximum around 1400 h. The most likely function of sunning in Accipitriformes in the rainforest is an anti-ectoparasite strategy. Camera-trap monitoring has been useful in detecting unusual interactions and diel patterns of activity, and researchers can obtain a wide range of natural history, ecological, and behavioral insights that would be difficult to obtain using traditional methods. We recommend analyzing "bycatch" data from camera traps to recover information about bird behaviors that would otherwise be unattainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife observation with camera traps has great potential for ethology and ecology, as it gathers data non-invasively in an automated way. However, camera traps produce large amounts of uncurated data, which is time-consuming to annotate. Existing methods to label these data automatically commonly use a fixed pre-defined set of distinctive classes and require many labeled examples per class to be trained. Moreover, the attributes of interest are sometimes rare and difficult to find in large data collections. Large pretrained vision-language models, such as contrastive language image pretraining (CLIP), offer great promises to facilitate the annotation process of camera-trap data. Images can be described with greater detail, the set of classes is not fixed and can be extensible on demand and pretrained models can help to retrieve rare samples. In this work, we explore the potential of CLIP to retrieve images according to environmental and ecological attributes. We create WildCLIP by fine-tuning CLIP on wildlife camera-trap images and to further increase its flexibility, we add an adapter module to better expand to novel attributes in a few-shot manner. We quantify WildCLIP's performance and show that it can retrieve novel attributes in the Snapshot Serengeti dataset. Our findings outline new opportunities to facilitate annotation processes with complex and multi-attribute captions. The code is available at https://github.com/amathislab/wildclip. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest fragmentation is one of the main drivers of global biodiversity loss leading to the isolation of wildlife populations. This study focuses on understanding the role of restoration corridors as a strategy promoting resilience and viability of mammal and bird populations in a fragmented landscape in Colombia. We installed 98 camera-trap stations − 8497 camera-trap days - in four different land cover categories: (1) forest fragments, (2) natural corridors, (3) stablished corridors and (4) pastures. We evaluated if restoration corridors do promote connectivity for large vertebrates and recover species richness and functional diversity lost in anthropogenically transformed pastures. We used indices of taxonomic and functional diversity and a non-metric multidimensional scaling to evaluate the influence of land cover over mammal and bird communities. Both, species richness and functional diversity have higher values in forests, followed by natural corridors and corridors and lower values in open pastures. Differences in species composition were greater between forests and pastures, and species composition of restoration corridors begins to resemble that of riparian forests and forest fragments. Our results provide initial evidence on the role of restoration corridors as an efficient strategy aimed to recover biodiversity and functional diversity in pervasively fragmented landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camera trapping has been used to assess the activity patterns of Indian crested porcupines and co-occurring mammals in urban protected areas. Data have been collected during the winter season. There is very lesser-known information available about the activity patterns and co-occurrence of free-ranging mammalian species in National Zoological Park, New Delhi (NZP). By using a preliminary sign survey and camera trapping technique, the information on free-ranging Indian Crested Porcupine (Hystrix indica) was collected during the study period i.e., January–April, 2021. For the sampling effort of 196 trap nights over the period of 60 days, a total of 229 photographs were captured. The estimated sign density for the Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica) was recorded as 0.22sign/ha. Relative Abundance Indices (RAIs) were estimated as 24.49, 9.18 and 6.63 for Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) respectively. Porcupines were seen active throughout the night along with other small mammals like common palm civet and small Indian civet. For ICP high detection probability was between 1800–2000 h with the highest daily activity index (DAI) of 45.82. The highest degree of activity overlap was observed between ICP and CPC [Δ = 0.61 (± 0.07)] followed by CPC and SIC [Δ = 0.55 (± 0.12)] and & ICP and SIC [Δ = 0.49 (± 0.11)]. These observations highlight the nocturnal habits of these species, with each having specific peak activity times during the night and early morning hours. This information can be useful for understanding their behaviour, and habitat use, and for planning conservation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduced species can negatively impact endemic flora and fauna. Studies have primarily utilized camera trap observations and occupancy modelling to better clarify the presence/absence and temporal overlap of endemic and exotic predators. Longitudinal data from field research sites are important as they can provide a finer understanding of predator dynamics and their effects on endemic species. One such site is the Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve, in southern Madagascar. Protected since the 1970s, the local human population around Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve has greatly expanded, leading to habitat disturbance in the surrounding forests and increased contact between local wildlife, people and their livestock and dogs. Here we use a combination of scat sampling, field observations of successful and attempted predations, locations of scat samples with identifiable lemur remains, and camera trap data to better assess the predator ecology at Bezà Mahafaly Special Reserve. Our results indicate that forest cats (Felis catus), are effective predators of both adult and infant lemurs and appear to be a constant mammalian predator, utilizing mammal prey more than dogs. Dogs are both predators and scavengers of lemurs. Civets focus on small prey, such as insects and rodents as well as plant material. The fosa, Cryptoprocta ferox, are also present but may not hunt in the area continuously. The killing of an adult ring-tailed lemur by two men from outside the area indicate culturally imposed taboos against lemur killing may no longer be effective given that new arrivals may not share the same local cultural restrictions. Scat sampling of exotic predators is one way to expand our understanding of exotic and endemic predator impact on lemur populations, and long-term studies with multiple assessments of predation can provide a clearer understanding of how non-endemic and endemic predators affect endangered species survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The daily activity rhythms of herbivores have significant ecological and conservation implications. Most studies have focused on predators and their prey, as well as sympatric carnivores or herbivores, with little attention given to ungulates in predator-free ecosystems. Using camera traps, we systematically studied the activity patterns and grouping characteristics of goitered gazelles in the Helan Mountains. Our findings reveal that goitered gazelles are crepuscular-like, with activity peaks occurring after dawn and before dusk. Their daily activity patterns and grouping characteristics vary across seasons, likely influenced by climatic conditions and resource availability. This research provides essential ecological insights for the restoration and conservation of goitered gazelle populations and underscores the importance of further behavioral studies on ecologically significant rare species in isolated habitats. Wildlife activity patterns, which reveal the daily allocation of time and energy, are crucial for understanding survival pressures, adaptive strategies, and behavioral characteristics in different environments. Among ungulates, grouping behavior is a prevalent adaptive trait that reflects the population structure, mating systems, and life history strategies formed over long-term evolutionary processes. This study aimed to elucidate the daily activity patterns and grouping characteristics of the rare goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) in the Helan Mountains of western China from 2022 to 2023 using camera trap monitoring. With a total of 3869 camera days of effective trapping, we recorded 442 independent detections of goitered gazelles. The results revealed the following: (1) Goitered gazelle is primarily active during the day, showing an activity pattern similar to crepuscular animals, with two activity peaks occurring after dawn and before dusk. (2) Daily activity patterns showed both seasonal and sex differences. In the warm season, morning activity peaks occurred earlier, and afternoon peaks occurred later compared to the cold season. The overlap in daily activity patterns between females and males in the warm season was lower than that in the cold season, and this trend persisted throughout the year. (3) The number of times different types of groups were observed varied significantly, with single males and single females accounting for a larger proportion of all observed groups. There was no significant difference in group size across seasons, with groups typically consisting of 1–2 individuals. Our study provides detailed insights into the temporal ecology and population structure of goitered gazelles in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. This information will guide the identification of future conservation priorities and the development of management plans for the reserve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite being resident or reintroduced to multiple South African protected areas, spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) have been subject to limited population monitoring and are not managed in the same intensive way as other large carnivores. Considering the species' significant influence on ecosystem processes, robust estimates of population density are necessary to inform conservation management. In this study, we ran a single‐season camera trap survey in the Main Camp section of Addo Elephant National Park (Addo), South Africa, and used spatial capture‐recapture (SCR) models to estimate spotted hyaena population density. Spotted hyaena density was estimated to be 11.13 (± SE 1.96) individuals/100 km2, with an estimated abundance of 37 (± SE 6.44) individuals. Using our database of sexed spotted hyaena individuals, we found no significant difference for sex‐specific SCR parameters (baseline encounter probability and spatial scale parameter), suggesting the incorporation of sex‐specific information may not be as necessary for spotted hyaena as it is for territorial felids and other species with more pronounced differences in range size. Spotted hyaena density in Addo was comparable to previous SCR studies and towards the higher end of known densities. Our estimate provides an important baseline for monitoring reintroduction success in Addo, and we advocate for increased SCR monitoring of spotted hyaena in South African protected areas to inform a metapopulation approach to the species' management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protected areas (PAs) are pivotal to biodiversity conservation, yet their efficacy is compromised by insufficient funding and management. So‐called other effective area‐based conservation measures (OECMs) present a paradigm shift and address PA limitations. Such measures can expand conservation areas, enhance connectivity, and improve the existing system. To assess the conservation status of biodiversity in Tibetan cultural areas in China, we investigated the spatial distribution of wildlife vulnerable to human disturbance (large‐ and medium‐sized mammals and terrestrial birds) in Xinlong, a traditional Tibetan cultural area. In particular, we compared a PA (Xionglongxi Nature Reserve) and OECMs targeting species conservation. We also investigated the relationship of wildlife with human temporal and spatial activities. The OECMs complemented areas not covered by PA, especially in rich understory biodiversity regions. More species in OECMs tolerated human presence than species in the PA. Existing biodiversity reserves failed to cover areas of high conservation value in Tibet and offered limited protection capacity. Expanding PAs and identifying OECMs improved Xinlong's system by covering most biodiversity hotspots. Building on the tradition of wildlife conservation in Tibet, harnessing OECMs may be an effective means of augmenting biodiversity conservation capacity. We recommend further evaluation of OECMs effectiveness and coverage in Tibetan area as a way to enhance the current PA system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Freshwater habitats support high levels of biodiversity and provide important habitat for wetland‐dependent taxa; however, impairment of aquatic connectivity through wetland loss, stream alterations and light pollution impacts species persistence and community resilience. Quantifying occupancy of these habitats to assess their use by mammals and birds can be challenging, especially for cryptic species.This study examines wetland habitat use by mammals and birds, and their spatial and temporal relationships within the Beaver Hills Biosphere in Alberta, Canada. As part of a multi‐method detection approach, camera boxes, cameras on beaver dams, and camera rafts allowed for multivariate analyses to determine temporal and spatial patterns of habitat use and species associations, while field sampling and environmental DNA (eDNA) provided data on site occupancy by a subset of semi‐aquatic mammals.From ~50,000 images, over 84 species were detected, including 52 species of birds and 25 species of mammals. Several species were spatially associated, and although most species of mammals exhibited temporal overlap, there were distinct differences, especially on beaver dams where predators such as coyotes and white‐tailed deer shared the same space. Temporally, birds were detected most often during the day and mammals at night. During new moon phases, use of beaver dams by beavers decreased dramatically, and use of camera rafts by muskrats increased.Winter field surveys allowed for a broad overview of wetland occupancy and abundance of some species, particularly by beavers and muskrats, and occasionally winter use by other semi‐aquatic mammals. Where there was limited detection of more cryptic species of semi‐aquatic mammals, eDNA analysis successfully detected American water shrew, American mink, North American river otter and northern bog lemming more often than camera and field methods.Applying a multi‐method monitoring approach for mammals and birds in wetland habitats is critical at a time when freshwater systems are experiencing dramatic declines in relative abundance of monitored wildlife populations, with many of these species underrepresented in conventional surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sympatric species reduce competitive interactions by segregating their ecological niche as a strategy that promotes coexistence. The main dimensions in which niche differentiation occurs are spatial, trophic, and temporal axes. Thus, describing the spatiotemporal patterns of sympatric species help us better grasp how species coexist. In Mexico, coyotes (Canis latrans) and gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) are sympatric and widely distributed, and information about their temporal and spatiotemporal interactions is still needed to explain their coexistence throughout their distribution. The evaluation of the ecological niche in temperate forests where both species coexist has shown high spatial and trophic overlap. Therefore, more pronounced segregation must occur in other niche dimensions, such as temporal and spatiotemporal axes, to maintain the coexistence between coyotes and gray foxes. As an approach to exploring the coexistence between these species in temperate forests, we pose the following question: Is there temporal or spatiotemporal segregation between sympatric coyotes and gray foxes? We hypothesized that both species maintain coexistence due to differences in their daily activity patterns (temporal segregation) and the presence of avoidance behaviors at the spatiotemporal level (spatiotemporal segregation), thereby reducing agonistic interactions. We aimed to evaluate indicators of niche segregation through two approaches: (i) temporal niche partitioning, measuring the overlap of the daily activity patterns and activity levels; and (ii) spatiotemporal niche partitioning, through temporal co-occurrence analysis and time to encounter analysis. In 2018, we used a camera-trap array (n = 43) to evaluate spatiotemporal interactions of coyotes and gray foxes in temperate forests of northern Mexico. We found that coyotes exhibited a diurnal daily activity pattern, whereas gray foxes were nocturnal, showing low overlap between daily activity patterns. Temporal co-occurrence and time to encounter analysis showed that coyotes and gray foxes occurred independently of each other. Therefore, we demonstrated that the spatiotemporal interactions between both species is a result of random species associations. In conclusion, here we provide evidence that ecological segregation occurred in the temporal niche and not in the spatiotemporal niche of the species. Thus, the temporal niche segregation represents one of the ecological strategies that facilitates the coexistence between coyotes and gray foxes and therefore promotes their sympatry in the temperate forests of northern Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conservation of endangered primates often relies on data on population dynamics and health obtained from individuals captured with baited traps. This could increase the risk of injury or predation by attracting competitors and predators to the baited locations. It also can lead to unforeseen interactions of ecological significance among nontarget species. We evaluated these hypotheses by monitoring visits by multiple species to capture platforms for endangered golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia). We placed camera traps on ten platforms baited with bananas resulting in more than 1500 species records. We calculated species richness and temporal patterns of visitation overlap among lion tamarins, predators, and competitor species. We also fitted a lion tamarin group with a GPS telemetry transmitter to assess whether movements toward and visits to the platform occurred more than expected by chance. Thirteen mammals and 12 bird species visited the platforms. There was high temporal overlap, albeit with peaks at different times, with the tayra (Eira barbara)—a main predator. Introduced hybrid marmosets (Callithrix spp.) were present on the platforms in 42% of visits by lion tamarins, and we recorded fights between the two species. There was significant temporal overlap between lion tamarins and capuchin monkeys. The lion tamarin visitation rate to platforms did not differ from random locations, nor did they show significant recursive behavior. Lion tamarins were vigilant in 90% of platform visits and emitted mild alarm calls, mobbing calls, and food calls. Their vocal output increased when marmosets were on the platforms. We suggest that lion tamarins consider the platforms an attractive, albeit risky, food resource. Baited platforms attract species beyond the target species and create conditions for unintended potentially negative effects on multiple species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation is a major topic in primatology. In addition to focusing on individual species, the protection of interaction networks is key to conservation success, but difficulties in identifying these networks hinder research. We hope to inspire research in primate conservation through network analysis. We illustrate an approach for studying species networks using data for Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) in three national nature reserves in Sichuan Province, China: Wolong, Tangjiahe, and Heizhugou. With data on species presence/absence from 185 cameras each continuously working for >12 months, we used the Phi coefficient rø to identify spatial association networks between species and the Lambda statistic LB to test the properties of the associations. We identified four networks across the reserves. Tibetan macaques were associated with four terrestrial/semi-arboreal bird and mammal species in Wolong and nine species in Tangjiahe, but only two species in Heizhugou. Macaques formed symmetrical associations, suggesting competition, unidirectional asymmetrical associations, suggesting commensalism, and bidirectional asymmetrical associations, suggesting mutualism. The macaque's community environment may be predation-free. Commensal and mutualistic interactions with Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) and three other species may enhance the ecological fitness of Tibetan macaques in Tangjiahe over that in Wolong and conservation investment for the macaque in Tangjiahe may benefit more species than that in Wolong. Asymmetrical associations may facilitate the ecological restoration of the degraded community in Heizhugou. Our approach may provide a sensitive method for ecological monitoring for conservation management, and facilitate primate community ecological research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Camera trapping has revolutionized wildlife ecology and conservation by providing automated data acquisition, leading to the accumulation of massive amounts of camera trap data worldwide. Although management and processing of camera trap‐derived Big Data are becoming increasingly solvable with the help of scalable cyber‐infrastructures, harmonization and exchange of the data remain limited, hindering its full potential. There is currently no widely accepted standard for exchanging camera trap data. The only existing proposal, “Camera Trap Metadata Standard” (CTMS), has several technical shortcomings and limited adoption. We present a new data exchange format, the Camera Trap Data Package (Camtrap DP), designed to allow users to easily exchange, harmonize and archive camera trap data at local to global scales. Camtrap DP structures camera trap data in a simple yet flexible data model consisting of three tables (Deployments, Media and Observations) that supports a wide range of camera deployment designs, classification techniques (e.g., human and AI, media‐based and event‐based) and analytical use cases, from compiling species occurrence data through distribution, occupancy and activity modeling to density estimation. The format further achieves interoperability by building upon existing standards, Frictionless Data Package in particular, which is supported by a suite of open software tools to read and validate data. Camtrap DP is the consensus of a long, in‐depth, consultation and outreach process with standard and software developers, the main existing camera trap data management platforms, major players in the field of camera trapping and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). Under the umbrella of the Biodiversity Information Standards (TDWG), Camtrap DP has been developed openly, collaboratively and with version control from the start. We encourage camera trapping users and developers to join the discussion and contribute to the further development and adoption of this standard.

Abstract Estimating the abundance or density of wildlife populations is a critical part of species conservation and management, but estimates can vary greatly in precision and accuracy according to the sampling and statistical methods, sampling and ecological variation, and sample size. We used images of moose (Alces americanus) from camera traps to parameterize N‐mixture models and tested the effect of ecological conditions, the spatial scale of measurement, and the criteria used to define independent detections on estimates of population abundance. We compared the model estimates to those generated empirically with aerial survey data, the standard method for many species of ungulate. We explored the sensitivity of estimates to model choice based on the common statistical criterion of parsimony. The two most parsimonious N‐mixture models (i.e. AICc) were considerably biased, producing implausibly large and considerably imprecise estimates of abundance. Most of the other models produced estimates of moose abundance that were ecologically realistic and relatively accurate. The accuracy of population estimates produced by N‐mixture models was not overly sensitive to the formulation of models, the scale at which ecological conditions were measured, or the criteria used to define independent detection and by extension sample size. Our results suggested that parsimony was a poor measure of the predictive accuracy of the population estimates produced with the N‐mixture model. We recommend using a suite of models to generate predictions of abundance instead of the single top‐ranked model. Collecting and processing data from the aerial survey was less expensive and took less time, but data from camera traps provided a broader set of insights into the behaviour of moose and the co‐occurrence of competitors and predators.

Behavioural thermoregulation has critical ecological and physiological consequences that profoundly influence individual fitness and species distributions, particularly in the context of climate change. However, field monitoring of this behaviour remains labour‐intensive and time‐consuming. With the rise of camera‐based surveys and artificial intelligence (AI) approaches in computer vision, we should try to build better tools for characterizing animals' behavioural thermoregulation. In this study, we developed a deep learning framework to automate the detection and classification of thermoregulation behaviour. We used lizards, the Rough‐tail rock agama (Laudakia vulgaris), as a model animal for thermoregulation. We colour‐marked the lizards and curated a diverse dataset of images captured by trail cameras under semi‐natural conditions. Subsequently, we trained an object‐detection model to identify lizards and image classification models to determine their microclimate usage (activity in sun or shade), which may indicate thermoregulation preferences. We then evaluated the performance of each model and analysed how the classification of thermoregulating lizards performed under different solar conditions (sun or shade), times of day and marking colours. Our framework's models achieved high scores in several performance metrics. The behavioural thermoregulation classification model performed significantly better on sun‐basking lizards, achieving the highest classification accuracy with white‐marked lizards. Moreover, the hours of activity and the microclimate choices (sun vs shade‐seeking behaviour) of lizards, generated by our framework, are closely aligned with manually annotated data. Our study underscores the potential of AI in effectively tracking behavioural thermoregulation, offering a promising new direction for camera trap studies. This approach can potentially reduce the labour and time associated with ecological data collection and analysis and help gain a deeper understanding of species' thermal preferences and risks of climate change on species behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prey-predator interactions across time and space strongly influence many animal communities. This study unveils the first insights into the ecology of the Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in Mongolia, and specifically in Bogd Khan Mountain Strictly Protected Area. We used by-catch data obtained from camera traps to analyze activity patterns and potential interactions with mammalian predators. Red squirrels exhibited primarily diurnal activity with occasional nocturnal forays, while potential predators like foxes (Vulpes vulpes, Vulpes corsac) and martens (Martes foina, Martes zibellina) displayed cathemeral and nocturnal patterns, respectively. The diurnal Pallas’s cat (Otocolobus manul) showed the greatest activity overlap with squirrels. Suggesting predator avoidance behavior potentially mediated by olfactory cues, squirrel activity was negatively impacted by marten presence, which was in turn potentially affected by human disturbance. We highlight the need for further investigations, particularly regarding the dietary composition of Pallas’s cats in forested habitats and the broader ecological implications of human disturbance on predator–prey dynamics within this crucial conservation area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The activity of many animals follows recurrent patterns and foraging is one of the most important processes in their daily activity. Determining movement in the search for resources and understanding temporal and spatial patterns in foraging has therefore long been central in behavioural ecology. However, identifying and monitoring animal movements is often challenging. In this study we assess the use of camera traps to track a very specific and small‐scale interactions focused on the foraging behaviour of Heliconiini butterflies. Data on floral visitation was recorded using marked individuals of three pollen‐feeding species of Heliconius (H. erato, H. melpomene and H. sara), and two closely related, non‐pollen feeding species (Dryas iulia and Dryadula phaetusa) in a large outdoor insectary. We demonstrate that camera traps efficiently capture individual flower visitation over multiple times and locations and use our experiments to describe some features of their spatial and temporal foraging patterns. Heliconiini butterflies showed higher activity in the morning with strong temporal niche overlap. Differences in foraging activity between males and females was observed with females foraging earlier than males, mirroring published field studies. Some flowers were more explored than others, which may be explained by butterflies foraging simultaneously affecting each other's flower choices. Feeding was grouped in short periods of intense visits to the same flower, which we refer to as feeding bouts. Heliconius also consistently visits the same flower, while non‐Heliconius visited a greater number of flowers per day and their feeding bouts were shorter compared with Heliconius. This is consistent with Heliconius having more stable long‐term spatial memory and foraging preferences than outgroup genera. More broadly, our study demonstrates that camera traps can provide a powerful tool to gather information about foraging behaviour in small insects such as butterflies. © 2024 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantifying the cost‐effectiveness of alternative sampling methods is crucial for efficient biodiversity monitoring and detection of population trends. In this study, we compared the cost‐effectiveness of three novel sampling methods for detecting changes in koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) occupancy: thermal drones, passive acoustic recorders and camera trapping. Specifically, we fitted single‐season occupancy‐detection models to data recorded from 46 sites in eight bioregions of New South Wales, Australia, between 2018 and 2022. We explored the effect of weather variables on daily detection probability for each method and, using these estimates, calculated the statistical power to detect 30%, 50% and 80% declines in koala occupancy. We calculated power for different combinations of sites (1–200) and repeat surveys (2–40) and developed a cost model that found the cheapest survey design that achieved 80% power to detect change. On average, detectability of koalas was highest with one 24‐h period of acoustic surveys (0.32, 95% CI's: 0.26, 0.39) compared to a 25‐ha flight of drone surveys (0.28, 95% 0.15, 0.48) or a 24‐h period of camera trapping consisting of six cameras (0.019, 95% CI's: 0.014, 0.025). We found a negative quadratic relationship between detection probability and air temperature for all three methods. Our power and cost analysis suggested that 148 sites surveyed with acoustic recorders deployed for 14 days would be the cheapest method to sufficiently detect a 30% decline in occupancy with 80% power. We recommend passive acoustic recorders as the most efficient sampling method for monitoring koala occupancy compared to cameras or drones. Further comparative studies are needed to compare the relative effectiveness of these methods and others when the monitoring objective is to detect change in koala abundance over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camera traps have transformed the way we monitor wildlife and are now routinely used to address questions from a wide range of ecological and conservation aspects. Sampling design optimization and a better understanding of drivers determining the precision of detection rates (i.e. the number of detections per unit of effort) are important methodological issues. Little attention has been focused on the effect of placing more than one camera on each sampling point (hereafter, clustered design), and/or rotating (i.e. redeploying) the cameras to new placements during the sampling period.We explored the differences in the precision of detection rates between clustered vs. single camera designs when cameras remained in the same location during the study. Furthermore, the effect of keeping the placement of cameras fixed or rotating them (i.e. moving them to new locations during the sampling period), when a limited number of camera devices are available, was also evaluated. We used simulations and field data to test differences in detection rate precision for the different sampling designs. We simulated three different population distributions (random, trail‐based and aggregated) and three abundance scenarios. The simulations were validated with a field experiment focused on eight species with different behavioural traits, including artiodactyls, carnivores, lagomorphs, and birds.When a fixed number of sampling points were monitored simultaneously, clustered designs generally resulted in an increase in the precision of detection rates compared to single designs. The absolute reduction in the coefficient of variation by clustered designs was on average 0.07 units (min: 0.01, max: 0.15), which represents an average relative reduction in CV of 31% (min:6%, max:44%). An improvement in precision was also observed as a higher number of sampling points was used for all population distributions and sampling designs tested. When a fixed number of cameras were available, rotating the cameras to independent locations improved precision (an absolute reduction of 0.19 CV units) when monitoring aggregated populations, but not for random and trail‐based population distributions.Synthesis and applications: Our research provides a guideline for wildlife managers and researchers to improve the precision of camera trap detection rates and optimize resource allocation. In general, the study design should accommodate the behaviour of the target species (e.g. spatial aggregation and abundance), monitoring program logistic resources (both human and economic) and study area characteristics (e.g. accessibility and vandalism). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mountain hare is a cold‐adapted species threatened by climate change, but despite its emblematic nature, our understanding of the causes of population decline remains limited. Camera traps are increasingly used in ecology as a tool for monitoring animal populations at large spatial and temporal scales. In mountain environments where field work is constrained by difficult access and harsh conditions, camera traps constitute a promising tool for surveying rare and elusive species such as the mountain hare. Our study explored the use of camera traps as a tool for studying seasonal habitat occupancy and daily activity patterns of the mountain hare, in order to carry out long‐term monitoring of populations. We installed 46 camera traps along elevation gradients in the Mont‐Blanc massif (France) from January 2018 to June 2022. We measured habitat variables at each camera trap site in order to define vegetation composition and habitat structure. We performed multi‐season and single‐season occupancy models to respectively describe habitat occupancy of the mountain hare throughout the year and identify the environmental variables influencing mountain hare presence during the breeding season. Mountain hares occupy coniferous forest in winter, and then switch to mixed areas of shrubland and grassland above treeline in spring and the beginning of summer. In spring, occupancy probability of the mountain hare increases with relative cover of mixed low shrub and herbaceous layer (i.e. the 10–40 cm vegetation layer), suggesting a link to food resources and protection from predation. Our results also confirm the nocturnal and crepuscular activity of the mountain hare during the breeding season, and strictly nocturnal activity in winter. Our results demonstrate the efficiency of camera traps as tools for monitoring mountain hare habitat occupancy in mountain environments and underline the importance of diverse habitat mosaics for the preservation of the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Endangered species recovery requires knowledge of species abundance, distribution, habitat preferences, and threats. Endangered beach mouse populations (Peromyscus polionotus subspp.) occur on barrier islands in Florida and Alabama. Camera traps may supplement current methods and strengthen inferences of animal activity. Between November 2020-February 2022, we conducted 140 camera surveys across 86 track tubes on Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. We used generalized linear models to explore the relationships between beach mouse detections and environmental factors. We detected beach mice on 6,397 occasions across all tubes. Detections ranged from 0 to 147 observations/survey. Our top model suggested that beach mouse detection was related to cover type with positive associations with grassland and dune compared to scrub. Detections further varied depending on islands, were negatively associated with predator detections, and increased in winter months. Our results suggest that cameras can supplement inference about vegetation associations at broader scales to complement monthly track tube surveys since detection counts are more informative than presence/absence data alone. Given that all tubes exhibited at least one observation, the camera trap network may provide a less frequent and more robust survey method relative to monthly track tube surveys. Adopting such a multifaceted approach may reduce effort and strengthen inference to inform recovery objectives and adaptive management range-wide for all listed beach mouse subspecies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The assessment of animal body condition has important practical and management implications for endangered wildlife populations. The nutritional condition of a population can be evaluated in a non-invasive way using photogrammetry techniques, avoiding direct manipulation. This study evaluates the utility of using body condition scoring (BCS) based on the visual assessment of subcutaneous fat and muscle from the body contour as a non-invasive method to quantify body condition in free ranging bears from camera trap photographs. Photographs of Apennine brown bears (Ursus arctos marsicanus), taken between 2007 and 2009 in the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park (PNALM, Italy), were used to evaluate the potential of this technique. BCS assessment was performed on 754 photographs representing 71 independent observations. Forty-eight of these photographs were selected to also score quantitative body ratios using a standardised measure of torso height. BCS varied seasonally, as expected by food availability and brown bear nutritional physiology, and it was also positively correlated to all three body ratios. Our findings indicate that BCS assessment is a good proxy for body condition, and that camera trap data can be effectively used to assess and monitor the nutritional condition of bear populations, such as the critically endangered one in central Italy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multifunctional landscapes that support economic activities and conservation of biological diversity (e.g., cattle ranches with native forest) are becoming increasingly important because small remnants of native forest may comprise the only habitat left for some wildlife species. Understanding the co‐occurrence between wildlife and disturbance factors, such as poaching activity and domesticated ungulates, is key to successful management of multifunctional landscapes. Tools to measure co‐occurrence between wildlife and disturbance factors include camera traps and autonomous acoustic recording units. We paired 52 camera‐trap stations with acoustic recorders to investigate the association between 2 measures of disturbance (poaching and cattle) and wild ungulates present in multifunctional landscapes of the Colombian Orinoquía. We used joint species distribution models to investigate species–habitat associations and species–disturbance correlations. One model was fitted using camera‐trap data to detect wild ungulates and disturbance factors, and a second model was fitted after replacing camera‐trap detections of disturbance factors with their corresponding acoustic detections. The direction, significance, and precision of the effect of covariates depended on the sampling method used for disturbance factors. Acoustic monitoring typically resulted in more precise estimates of the effects of covariates and of species–disturbance correlations. Association patterns between wildlife and disturbance factors were found only when disturbance was detected by acoustic recorders. Camera traps allowed us to detect nonvocalizing species, whereas audio recording devices increased detection of disturbance factors leading to more precise estimates of co‐occurrence patterns. The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), and white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) co‐occurred with disturbance factors and are conservation priorities due to the greater risk of poaching or disease transmission from cattle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carnivores, especially wolves (Canis sp.), have profound impacts on their ecosystems, affecting the abundance and behavior of prey and competitors, but this has not been examined in detail for red wolves (C. rufus). We studied a population of red wolves that was reintroduced to eastern North Carolina in 1987 and initially thrived, peaking at 120 animals. Due to an increase in anthropogenic mortality and a decline in government support, the population experienced a crash starting in 2014. We evaluated changes in the relative abundance of prey and competitor species during the red wolf decline with 25 camera traps run primarily on National Wildlife Refuges from 2015 to 2021. If red wolves were having an ecological effect on the mammal community, we expected this effect would decline as the wolf population waned, resulting in increased prey and competitor populations. Supporting this, we found that relative abundance increased for most prey and competitor species including American black bear (Ursus americanus), bobcat (Lynx rufus), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) and Northern raccoon (Procyon lotor). For all species, this increase was most notable after spring 2018, the second year with low red wolf reproduction. For some species, the increase was dramatic; the detection rate for raccoon, bear and bobcat doubled from the spring of 2018 to the spring of 2021. White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) showed a general increase in relative abundance but remained prevalent even at their lowest detection rates. Our results lend correlational support to the hypothesis that red wolves had a strong effect on their ecosystems by suppressing prey and competitor populations when they were at their peak. This study adds to the growing body of evidence that reintroductions of large predators have ecological impacts, with the caveat that these impacts can decline rapidly if the predators dwindle back to critically low numbers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SNAPSHOT USA is a multicontributor, long‐term camera trap survey designed to survey mammals across the United States. Participants are recruited through community networks and directly through a website application (https://www.snapshot-usa.org/). The growing Snapshot dataset is useful, for example, for tracking wildlife population responses to land use, land cover, and climate changes across spatial and temporal scales. Here we present the SNAPSHOT USA 2021 dataset, the third national camera trap survey across the US. Data were collected across 109 camera trap arrays and included 1711 camera sites. The total effort equaled 71,519 camera trap nights and resulted in 172,507 sequences of animal observations. Sampling effort varied among camera trap arrays, with a minimum of 126 camera trap nights, a maximum of 3355 nights, a median 546 nights, and a mean 656 ± 431 nights. This third dataset comprises 51 camera trap arrays that were surveyed during 2019, 2020, and 2021, along with 71 camera trap arrays that were surveyed in 2020 and 2021. All raw data and accompanying metadata are stored on Wildlife Insights (https://www.wildlifeinsights.org/), and are publicly available upon acceptance of the data papers. SNAPSHOT USA aims to sample multiple ecoregions in the United States with adequate representation of each ecoregion according to its relative size. Currently, the relative density of camera trap arrays varies by an order of magnitude for the various ecoregions (0.22–5.9 arrays per 100,000 km2), emphasizing the need to increase sampling effort by further recruiting and retaining contributors. There are no copyright restrictions on these data. We request that authors cite this paper when using these data, or a subset of these data, for publication. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans are perceived as predators by many species and may generate landscapes of fear, influencing spatiotemporal activity of wildlife. Additionally, wildlife might seek out human activity when faced with predation risks (human shield hypothesis). We used the anthropause, a decrease in human activity resulting from the COVID‐19 pandemic, to test ecology of fear and human shield hypotheses and quantify the effects of bear‐viewing ecotourism on grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) activity. We deployed camera traps in the Khutze watershed in Kitasoo Xai'xais Territory in the absence of humans in 2020 and with experimental treatments of variable human activity when ecotourism resumed in 2021. Daily bear detection rates decreased with more people present and increased with days since people were present. Human activity was also associated with more bear detections at forested sheltered sites and less at exposed sites, likely due to the influence of habitat on bear perception of safety. The number of people negatively influenced adult male detection rates, but we found no influence on female with young detections, providing no evidence that females responded behaviorally to a human shield effect from reduced male activity. We also observed apparent trade‐offs of risk avoidance and foraging. When salmon levels were moderate to high, detected bears were more likely to be females with young than adult males on days with more people present. Should managers want to minimize human impacts on bear activity and maintain baseline age–sex class composition at ecotourism sites, multiday closures and daily occupancy limits may be effective. More broadly, this work revealed that antipredator responses can vary with intensity of risk cues, habitat structure, and forage trade‐offs and manifest as altered age–sex class composition of individuals using human‐influenced areas, highlighting that wildlife avoid people across multiple spatiotemporal scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recreation is known to impact wildlife by displacing and sometimes contributing to the extirpation of sensitive species, underscoring a need for policies that balance wildlife and recreation. This is especially pressing when Indigenous rights necessitate ecological integrity and sustainable populations of wildlife throughout traditional territories. In the Cascade Mountain Range of Washington, USA, Indigenous harvest of elk (Cervus canadensis) is declining, concurrent with increases in recreation. Yet, the nature and magnitude of the effects of recreation on elk are unknown, which prevents land managers from developing informed policies regarding recreation and wildlife management. Here, we use camera traps alongside visitation models that incorporate geolocated social media to quantify the impacts of recreation on elk in western Washington. Random forest models show elk detection rates are relatively constant at low levels of recreation (0–11 people/day), but decrease by over 41% when recreation increases from 12 to 22 people/day. Activity overlap analysis also revealed a shift toward increased evening activity by elk at cameras with higher‐than‐average recreation (∆ = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.61–0.88; χ2 = 7.79, p = 0.02). Generalized additive modeling confirms that elk are more crepuscular or nocturnal at camera locations with more than 10 hiker detections per day. We compare methods for estimating recreation, showing model‐based estimates are more informative than camera‐based estimates. This indicates that recreational intensity along and in the immediate vicinity of trails may be a better predictor of impacts on wildlife than camera‐based estimates that quantify recreational intensity at specific locations along trails. We stress the importance of examining the impacts of recreation on wildlife across multiple spatiotemporal scales and underscore how novel approaches can provide land managers valuable tools to develop management strategies that balance recreation and wildlife. We hope that our work can also serve as a strong example of collaboration between universities, state agencies, and sovereign Indigenous nations toward the broader goal of mitigating the negative impacts of recreation on wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camera trapping has revolutionized wildlife ecology and conservation by providing automated data acquisition, leading to the accumulation of massive amounts of camera trap data worldwide. Although management and processing of camera trap‐derived Big Data are becoming increasingly solvable with the help of scalable cyber‐infrastructures, harmonization and exchange of the data remain limited, hindering its full potential. There is currently no widely accepted standard for exchanging camera trap data. The only existing proposal, "Camera Trap Metadata Standard" (CTMS), has several technical shortcomings and limited adoption. We present a new data exchange format, the Camera Trap Data Package (Camtrap DP), designed to allow users to easily exchange, harmonize and archive camera trap data at local to global scales. Camtrap DP structures camera trap data in a simple yet flexible data model consisting of three tables (Deployments, Media and Observations) that supports a wide range of camera deployment designs, classification techniques (e.g., human and AI, media‐based and event‐based) and analytical use cases, from compiling species occurrence data through distribution, occupancy and activity modeling to density estimation. The format further achieves interoperability by building upon existing standards, Frictionless Data Package in particular, which is supported by a suite of open software tools to read and validate data. Camtrap DP is the consensus of a long, in‐depth, consultation and outreach process with standard and software developers, the main existing camera trap data management platforms, major players in the field of camera trapping and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). Under the umbrella of the Biodiversity Information Standards (TDWG), Camtrap DP has been developed openly, collaboratively and with version control from the start. We encourage camera trapping users and developers to join the discussion and contribute to the further development and adoption of this standard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camera traps were deployed over 12 months (2022-2023) to examine the locomotor activity patterns of stone martens (Martes foina) in a Mediterranean habitat on the island of Dugi Otok, Croatia. Activity levels were calculated, and intersessional differences were tested. Trap rate was compared between seasons and three types of vegetation cover (open areas, dense vegetation areas and cultivated areas). Temperature and relative humidity data were collected using data loggers placed in the study area, and the correlation between the number of events was calculated. The differences between the independent events depending on the moon phase were tested. A total of 416 independent events involving stone martens were recorded. A unimodal locomotor activity pattern was found for the stone marten on this island, and the patterns remained relatively consistent, with predominantly nocturnal activity. Activity levels in winter were significantly higher than in other seasons. Trapping rates were lower in open areas. There was no significant correlation between the independent events and average temperature and relative humidity. The phases of the moon did not influence the number of independent events. This study identifies new perspectives on the locomotor activity of stone martens in a Mediterranean island habitat and serves as a starting point for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation decisions for bird diversity in the Afrotropics are often based on ecological studies utilizing diurnal bird species likely owing to difficulties associated with sampling nocturnal birds. It is therefore important to compare the sampling effectiveness of some of the available techniques that can be used in nocturnal bird surveys to guide future long‐term survey efforts. Thus, we compared the sampling effectiveness of point count, acoustic recorder and camera trap for estimating nocturnal bird species richness and also across habitat types. We surveyed 20 points that were spaced at least 500 m apart in November and December 2021 in the Amurum Forest Reserve and its surroundings in Jos‐Nigeria. At each point, we used two camera traps, one at the ground and the other at 2.0 m. We also used one acoustic recorder as well as a 15‐min point count during each survey at each point. We encountered 11 nocturnal bird species, primarily nightjars but also owls. While we did not encounter any species with the camera traps, all 11 species were recorded using the acoustic recorder. All species except for Ketupa lacteaus were recorded in point count. Eight species were recorded in the gallery, seven in rocky and nine in savannah. Species richness and estimation using the acoustic recorder and point count were similar across habitat types. We conclude that either point count or acoustic recorders are useful for nocturnal bird surveys in Afrotropical environments. However, the choice of methods should be based on the research questions as some questions may be better answered by a specific method or even a combination of both. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predator–prey interaction is a major force driving natural selection. Yet, the identification of species preying on, or consuming, aposematic species is largely unknown. Here, I conduct a study evaluating the role of the exotic Rattus rattus as a consumer and possible predator of the aposematic and toxic Salamandra salamandra. I used camera traps to investigate the response of R. rattus towards S. salamandra carcasses in two insular populations, Ons and San Martiño (NW Spain), which show remarkable contrasting behaviour (nocturnal vs. diurnal activity) and demographic and phenotypic differences. This study unveils R. rattus consumes S. salamandra despite its aposematic colour pattern and toxicity. The high number of salamander carcasses consumed or taken by rats throughout each island (90%–100%) and the lack of other possible predator–prey interactions points to R. rattus as an efficient consumer of S. salamandra in these insular environments, which might exert a high predation pressure on both islands. Yet, the drivers underlying the behavioural and phenotypic differences in these insular populations should be further investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) is classified as vulnerable according to the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to habitat fragmentation and population decline. We used camera traps and a Random Encounter Model (REM) to estimate the population density of Asiatic black bears during the autumn and winter seasons in the Hindu Raj Mountains. We estimated, using the REM, a population density of U. thibetanus of 1.875 (standard error = 0.185) per square kilometer, which is significantly higher than that in other habitats. Our results showed that during autumn and winter, the bear population density tends to concentrate at lower elevations. Forest cover showed a positive correlation with the rates of bear encounters unlike the Euclidean distance to human settlements, altitude, and aspect variables. To improve bear conservation, it is very important to determine population density in all seasons at different elevations and to investigate how the depletion or abundance of acorns or other natural food resources is associated with human–bear conflicts in the study area. Estimating the population density of vulnerable species, such as the elusive and nocturnal Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), is essential for wildlife conservation and management. We used camera traps and a Random Encounter Model (REM) to estimate the population density of U. thibetanus during the autumn and winter seasons in the Hindu Raj Mountains. We installed 23 camera traps from October to December 2020 and acquired 66 independent pictures of Asiatic black bears over 428 trap nights. Our results showed that the bears preferred lowland areas with the presence of Quercus spp. We estimated, using the REM, a population density of U. thibetanus of 1.875 (standard error = 0.185) per square kilometer, which is significantly higher than that in other habitats. Our results showed that during autumn and winter, the bear population density tends to concentrate at lower elevations. Forest cover showed a positive correlation with the rates of bear encounters unlike the Euclidean distance to human settlements, altitude, and aspect variables. The approaches used here are cost-effective for estimating the population density of rare and vulnerable species such as U. thibetanus, and can be used to estimate their population density in Pakistan. Population density estimation can identify areas where the bears live and human–bear conflicts occurred and use this information in future wildlife management plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic diversity underpins evolutionary potential that is essential for the long‐term viability of wildlife populations. Captive populations harbor genetic diversity potentially lost in the wild, which could be valuable for release programs and genetic rescue. The Critically Endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) has disappeared from most of its former range across the Arabian Peninsula, with fewer than 120 individuals left in the wild, and an additional 64 leopards in captivity. We (i) examine genetic diversity in the wild and captive populations to identify global patterns of genetic diversity and structure; (ii) estimate the size of the remaining leopard population across the Dhofar mountains of Oman using spatially explicit capture–recapture models on DNA and camera trap data, and (iii) explore the impact of genetic rescue using three complementary computer modeling approaches. We estimated a population size of 51 (95% CI 32–79) in the Dhofar mountains and found that 8 out of 25 microsatellite alleles present in eight loci in captive leopards were undetected in the wild. This includes two alleles present only in captive founders known to have been wild‐sourced from Yemen, which suggests that this captive population represents an important source for genetic rescue. We then assessed the benefits of reintroducing novel genetic diversity into the wild population as well as the risks of elevating the genetic load through the release of captive‐bred individuals. Simulations indicate that genetic rescue can improve the long‐term viability of the wild population by reducing its genetic load and realized load. The model also suggests that the genetic load has been partly purged in the captive population, potentially making it a valuable source population for genetic rescue. However, the greater loss of its genetic diversity could exacerbate genomic erosion of the wild population during a rescue program, and these risks and benefits should be carefully evaluated. An important next step in the recovery of the Arabian leopard is to empirically validate these conclusions, implement and monitor a genomics‐informed management plan, and optimize a strategy for genetic rescue as a tool to recover Arabia's last big cat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimating the abundance or density of wildlife populations is a critical part of species conservation and management, but estimates can vary greatly in precision and accuracy according to the sampling and statistical methods, sampling and ecological variation, and sample size.We used images of moose (Alces americanus) from camera traps to parameterize N‐mixture models and tested the effect of ecological conditions, the spatial scale of measurement, and the criteria used to define independent detections on estimates of population abundance. We compared the model estimates to those generated empirically with aerial survey data, the standard method for many species of ungulate. We explored the sensitivity of estimates to model choice based on the common statistical criterion of parsimony.The two most parsimonious N‐mixture models (i.e. AICc) were considerably biased, producing implausibly large and considerably imprecise estimates of abundance. Most of the other models produced estimates of moose abundance that were ecologically realistic and relatively accurate. The accuracy of population estimates produced by N‐mixture models was not overly sensitive to the formulation of models, the scale at which ecological conditions were measured, or the criteria used to define independent detection and by extension sample size.Our results suggested that parsimony was a poor measure of the predictive accuracy of the population estimates produced with the N‐mixture model. We recommend using a suite of models to generate predictions of abundance instead of the single top‐ranked model. Collecting and processing data from the aerial survey was less expensive and took less time, but data from camera traps provided a broader set of insights into the behaviour of moose and the co‐occurrence of competitors and predators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Biotropica is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Habitat destruction is a major driver of biodiversity loss, especially in the tropics. We investigated changes in the diversity and occupancy of forest-dwelling mammals in response to habitat loss, alteration, and degradation at the Mau Forest Complex (MFC), southwestern Kenya. Using a systematic camera trapping grid, we estimated patterns of mammalian diversity, occupancy of small carnivores, and detection rates of functional mammalian groups across three habitat types (primary forests, secondary forests, and cultivated habitats). Between March 2019 and October 2021, 246 camera traps were deployed across 181 locations representing 5509 sampling days, resulting in 47,345 images of 52 mammalian species in nine mammalian orders. Alpha diversity differed among treatments, with primary forests having the highest diversity, and cultivated habitats the lowest, though results were not statistically significant. Beta diversity differed significantly among treatments, indicating differences in community composition as well as species richness. Overall occupancy for small carnivores was highest in primary forests and lowest in cultivated habitats, with some species specializing in primary forests while others were able to occupy more degraded habitats. Among functional groups, detection rates only differed significantly for large rodents, primates, and ungulates. Our results indicate that although functional groups and species may respond differently to habitat loss and alteration at the MFC, overall species diversity of specialist mammals was highest in the less-disturbed primary forests. Specialist, forest-dependent species are likely most affected by human activities, making them especially vulnerable to habitat loss at the MFC.

Outdoor recreation has experienced a boom in recent years and continues to grow. While outdoor recreation provides wide-ranging benefits to human well-being, there are growing concerns about the sustainability of recreation with the increased pressures placed on ecological systems and visitor experiences. These concerns emphasize the need for managers to access accurate and timely recreation data at scales that match the growing extent of the recreation footprint. Here, we compare spatial and temporal patterns of winter and summer recreation using traditional (trail cameras, infrared counters, aerial surveys, participatory mapping) and application-based tools (Strava Metro, Strava Global Heatmap, Wikiloc) across the Columbia and Canadian Rocky Mountains of western Canada. We demonstrate how recreation use can be estimated using traditional and application-based tools, although their accuracy and utility varies across space, season and activity type. We found that trail cameras and infrared counters captured similar broad-scale patterns in count estimates of pedestrians and all recreation activities. Aerial surveys captured areas with low recreation intensity and participatory mapping captured coarser information on the intensity and extent of recreation across large spatial and temporal scales. Application-based data provided detailed spatiotemporal information on recreation use, but datasets were biased towards specific activities. Strava Metro data was more suited for capturing broad-scale spatial patterns in biking than pedestrian recreation. Application-based data should be supplemented with data from traditional tools to identify biases in data and fill in data gaps. We provide a comparison of each tool for measuring recreation use, highlight each tools’ strengths and limitations and applications to address real-world monitoring and management scenarios. Our research contributes towards a better understanding of which tool, or combinations of tools, to use that can expand the rigor and scope of recreation research. These findings support decision-making to mitigate pressures on wildlife and their habitats while allowing for high-quality recreation experiences.

Wildlife in the Anthropocene is increasingly spatially and temporally constrained by lethal and non-lethal human disturbance. For large carnivores with extensive space requirements, like wolves and Eurasian lynx, avoiding human disturbance in European landscapes is challenging when sufficient space with low disturbance is rarely available. Consequently, investigating behavioural adjustments to human presence is critical to understanding the capacity to adapt to human disturbance. We hypothesised that under low human disturbance conditions, large carnivores would adjust their temporal behaviours to make use of daytime, and when daytime human disturbance is high, they would opt for nocturnality. Using camera trap data from nine European study sites along a gradient in human disturbance, we analysed wolf and Eurasian lynx activity patterns. Our data spanned multiple years, 2014 – 2022, and we focused our analysis on September until April, when most large carnivore monitoring takes place. For wolves, our analysis revealed i) increased nocturnal behaviour, ii) decreased diurnal overlap with increasing human activity, and iii) a significant association between a higher probability of nocturnal activity and increasing human disturbance. For Eurasian lynx, we found iv) consistently nocturnal behaviours across all study sites, regardless of human disturbance, and v) no association between human disturbance and increased probability of being active during the night. Our results show that wolves can adjust to diurnal or cathemeral behaviours under low human disturbance, but shift to nocturnality when human disturbance increases. Eurasian lynx, however, consistently maintain their nocturnal behaviour, which we attribute to their principal hunting strategy of stalk and ambush. If human disturbance constrains large carnivore activity to nighttime, it could influence their interactions with prey, leading to cascading effects in the ecosystem. On the other hand, maintaining nocturnal behaviours in human-dominated landscapes may benefit large carnivore conservation, by decreasing negative interactions with humans thereby contributing to a landscape of coexistence.

In a study published in Global Change Biology, Dickie et al. examined the effects of climate and habitat alteration on white-tailed deer density. They found that both factors contribute to deer densities, but climate plays a particularly strong role. A critique by Barnas et al. raised concerns about data transformations and model overfitting, but Dickie et al. argue that these criticisms are unfounded or align with their original conclusions. They emphasize that management decisions must consider the impact of climate change, which is predicted to increase in the future, in order to address the decline of woodland caribou populations. [Extracted from the article]