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Over the past two decades, there has been a noteworthy surge in the attention and interest surrounding camel rearing and camel milk production in Saudi Arabia. This focus has emanated from diverse stakeholders including the general public, camel breeders, and researchers. While limited quantities of camel pasteurized milk currently available in selected showrooms, the sale of raw milk near camel enclosures remains prevalent. Recent developments include the inauguration of a modernized, opulent showroom in Riyadh exclusively dedicated to showcasing camel milk and its derivatives. The commencement of machine camel milking trials in Saudi Arabia traces back to 2003 when a portable single-bucket cow milking machine was initially tested at the Al-Jouf Range and Camel Research Center in Sakaka city. Subsequently, a company in the northern region of Saudi Arabia emerged the nation’s first semi-automatic camel milking line in 2008, which continues to operate to this day. However, these endeavors, while pioneering, lag behind contemporary milking technologies prevalent in dairy farms focused on cows. Despite these strides, there exists a notable dearth of comprehensive data encompassing critical aspects of dairy camel farming. Absence of information on dairy camel and total seasonal milk yields, scientific data on machine milkability, and established production standards and characteristics for female camel milk hinders the sector’s progress. This review endeavors to elucidate the obstacles and challenges hindering the widespread adoption of camel machine milking and the implementation of good camel management practices. It also outlines prospective measures aimed at overcoming these challenges for a more robust future for camel as a productive livestock in Saudi Arabia. With global climate changes, crises of protein and water shortages worldwide, and the remarkable production potentials of camels, this exploration aims to contribute to the sustainable development of camel farming in the context of evolving global challenges and opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camels possess exceptional adaptability, allowing them to withstand extreme temperatures in desert environments. They conserve water by reducing their metabolic rate and regulating body temperature. The heart of the camel plays a crucial role in this adaptation, with specific genes expressed in cardiac tissue that are essential for mammalian adaptation, regulating cardiac function and responding to environmental stressors. One such gene, nebulin‐related‐anchoring protein (NRAP), is involved in the assembly of myofibrils and the transmission of force within the heart. In our study of the NRAP gene across various livestock species, including three camel species, we identified a camel‐specific exon region in the NRAP transcripts. This additional exon (exon 4) contains an open reading frame predicted in camels. To investigate its function, we generated knock‐in mice expressing camel NRAP exon 4. These ‘camelized mice’ exhibited normal phenotypic characteristics compared with wild‐type mice but showed elevated body temperatures under cold stress. Transcriptome analyses of the hearts from camelized mice under cold stress revealed differentially expressed inflammatory cytokine genes, known to influence cardiac function by modulating the contractility of cardiac muscle cells. We propose further investigations utilizing these camelized mice to explore these findings in greater depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Enucleation and exenteration are widely utilized ophthalmic procedures in veterinary practice, involving the complete removal of the eye and comprehensive extraction of orbital contents, respectively. These procedures are indicated for pain relief, excision, and management of neoplasia metastases, and addressing severe medically untreatable conditions. Aim: This study aimed to develop an orbital enucleation surgical approach. The study evaluated the applicability of the new approach and investigated the impact of the surgical procedure. Methods: Anatomical dissection of three cadaveric heads and surgical orbital enucleation in four cadaveric heads were performed. Anatomical data was collected, and feasibility, safety and applicability of the procedure were assessed. Results: Anatomical dissection showed a distinctive large orbital fossa, providing a suitable surgical window to access orbital structures. The procedure was found to be feasible, facilitating the complete removal of the orbital content. Notably, the preservation of intact eyelids was prioritized to enhance cosmetic appearance. Conclusion: The presented orbital enucleation technique proved to be feasible, safe, reproducible, and required basic surgical skills to perform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the role of local fauna in Western Kazakhstan as potential reservoirs of the camelpox virus (CMLV). The study emphasizes analyzing possible sources and transmission pathways of the virus using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and serological methods, including virus neutralization tests and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Samples were collected from both young and adult camels, as well as rodents, ticks and blood-sucking insects in the Mangystau and Atyrau regions. The PCR results revealed the absence of viral DNA in rodents, ticks and blood-sucking insects; also, the ELISA test did not detect specific antibodies in rodents. These findings suggest that these groups of fauna likely do not play a significant role in the maintenance and spread of CMLV. Consequently, the primary sources of transmission are likely other factors, potentially including the camels themselves. The study's results indicate the need to reassess current hypotheses regarding infection reservoirs and to explore alternative sources to enhance strategies for the control and prevention of the camelpox virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gastric adenocarcinomas have been sporadically reported in camelids. This report describes a primary gastric adenocarcinoma and subsequent peritoneal carcinomatosis in a 20-year-old female Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus). Numerous metastases were present throughout the omentum, liver, abdominal lymph nodes, intestinal serosa, kidneys and lungs. The primary tumour macroscopically resembled an ulcerated crater and originated from the distal four-fifths of the C3 compartment, an anatomical region with naturally prominent gastric rugae and true glands. Moderate numbers of Helicobacter spp colonies were present within gastric pits and necrotic areas of C3. Ménetrier's disease has previously been implicated as a predisposing condition for the development of gastric adenocarcinoma in another camel, but no evidence of this premalignant disorder was found in this case. This camel also suffered from a chronic skin wound of the hump and severe degenerative joint disease of the xiphisternum, the latter of which was presumably associated with excessive pressure on the sternum. Gastric adenocarcinoma with subsequent peritoneal carcinomatosis in a Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus). The star in image c depicts the location of the primary tumour, which presented as an ulcerated crater in the distal C3 (image d). [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The significance of human capital is well recognized in contemporary times, and the management of firms with a knowledge-centric approach has underscored the importance of intellectual and human capital as key competitive advantages. Among these, the banking industry holds considerable importance, necessitating the industry's focus on leveraging human capital. Methodology: This study examines the relationship between the human capital value-added coefficient, a component of intellectual capital, and bank performance. The CAMEL model is employed to determine the functional components of bank performance. Financial statement data from 12 banks for the years 2012 to 2022 were utilized. Findings: The study's findings indicate a significant relationship between the intellectual capital value-added coefficient and variables such as capital adequacy, asset quality, management, and income, with a nonlinear inverted U-shaped function. In contrast, the relationship between the human capital value-added coefficient and liquidity is nonlinear and U-shaped. Conclusion: The study reveals that human capital value-added significantly impacts bank performance indicators, exhibiting nonlinear, inverted U-shaped relationships with capital adequacy, management, and income, and a U-shaped relationship with liquidity. Strategic investment in human capital is essential for optimizing these performance metrics in the banking sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored the alteration in kisspeptin and reproductive hormones during different superovulation protocols (SOP) in dromedary camel. The kisspeptin and reproductive hormonal profile, ovarian response, and the quality and quantity of embryos in dromedary camel donors were evaluated. A total of thirty donor camels were divided into two groups: the 5dSOP group, which received diluent containing 400 mg pFSH dissolved in 20 ml and administered two times daily for 5 days at decreasing doses (2.5, 2, 1.5, and 1 ml); and the 3dSOP group, which received diluent containing 400 mg pFSH dissolved in 12 ml and administered two times daily for 3 days at decreasing doses (3 ml, 2 ml, and 1 ml). Ultrasonography was used to monitor the ovarian environment, recording daily follicle count and dimensions and the time taken for follicles to mature. On the sixth day after mating, a corpus luteum (CL) count was conducted. On the 8th day after mating, records of the quantity and quality of embryos collected were kept. Blood samples from the jugular vein were collected at the commencement of the superovulation protocol and at 8:00 a.m. for the following 48 h to measure the concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (E2), kisspeptin (KP), and progesterone (P4). The findings indicated that the 3dSOP yielded superior results compared to the 5dSOP in terms of follicle quantity and size, as well as the quantity of CL and embryos. This improvement was attributed to significantly higher concentrations of reproductive hormones, including FSH, LH, E2, kisspeptin, and P4 (P ≤ 0.05), in the 3dSOP than in the 5dSOP. In conclusion, reducing the duration of superovulation protocols contributed to the proliferation of follicles with improved dimensions and counts, ultimately resulting in a greater quantity of embryos of superior quality. The levels of FSH, LH, E2, KP, and P4 were affected significantly by SOP and time of evaluation. • This is the first experiment to study the alteration in kisspeptin, FSH, LH, E2, and P4 during superovulation protocols in camel. • This study recommended reducing the doses of pFSH to three days instead of five days. • There were significantly higher concentrations of FSH, LH, E2, kisspeptin, and P4 in the 3dSOP than in the 5dSOP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although blood urine is frequently observed in dromedary camels, little attention is gained and only it was reported as case reports. Aim: This study was carried out to examine dromedary camels suffering from red urine syndrome from the points of clinical, etiological, hematobiochemical, ultrasonographic, and pathological characteristics. Methods: Thirty-one camels with red urine and fifteen controls were enrolled. With a duration ranging from five days to nine months, clinical manifestations included weakness, red discoloration of the urine, dribbling of urine, straining during urination, and abdominal pain. Blood was sampled in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and plain tubes. Results: The urine red color intensity was marked in 23 camels. In five camels discolored red urine was moderate while red urine was voided intermittently in the remaining three camels. The wide stance of the hind legs and pain reactions during urination were recorded in 18 camels. In all 31 camels, urine samples were centrifuged and sedimentation of red deposits was found. Nephrolithiasis was detected in three animals. One female camel had bilateral hydronephrosis. Hyperechoic urine was imaged within the renal pelvis in seven camels. In addition, hypoechoic fluid was imaged within the peritoneal cavity in 8 animals. A ruptured and collapsed urinary bladder was found in two male camels. In addition, bilateral pyelonephritis was found in another male camel. Abscessation of the left and right kidneys confirmed by ultrasound-guided aspiration was confirmed in 3 and 2 females, respectively. Peri-renal abscessation of the right kidney was detected in a female camel. A large, misshaped hypoechoic mass involving the right kidney was found in 1 female. A large mass king neoplasia was also imaged in a female camel distal to and compressing the left kidney, which proved histologically to be a leiomyoma. Moderate to severe thickening and corrugation of the urinary bladder mucosa were detected in 18 of the diseased camels. Conclusion: This study's syndrome of red urine in camels resulted mainly from hematuria. The existing etiologies were nephrolithiasis, cystitis, pyelonephritis, peri-renal and renal abscessation, and renal neoplasia. Ultrasonography was superior in assessing the renal parenchyma and urinary bladder for the verification of the existing nephrolithiasis, hydronephrosis, pyelonephritis, peri-renal and renal abscessation, cystitis, and ruptured or perforated bladder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Traumatic reticulopericarditis (TRP) is rarely reported in camels. This report provides TRP in camels. Case Description: She-camel (3 years old) with a history of anorexia, and stinky smell-bloody diarrhea for more than 3 weeks associated with pain, ventral thoracoabdominal edema, positive for metal detection examination that raised the suspicion of TRP. The result of the plasma cardiac troponin I level was 0.253 ng/ml. Electrocardiography on admission using a standard base-apex ECG revealed an irregular rhythm of heart rate and abnormal complex morphology in QRS duration and segments (ST and TP). Elevation of the S-T segment with a slight depression in the P-R segment matched with pericarditis. Conclusion: This report suggests a rare case of TRP and demonstrated for the first time cTnI and ECG patterns of camel with TRP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigates the performance differentials between Islamic and conventional banks operating in Palestine across a number of dimensions. Research Problem: The study addresses the lack of comparative analysis between Islamic and conventional banks in Palestine, specifically examining performance disparities using the CAMEL approach. This is critical due to the recent trend of conventional banks acquiring Islamic banks, raising questions about the underlying performance differences. Purpose: The main purpose of this study is to analyze and compare the performance of Islamic and conventional banks in Palestine from 2011 to 2021, focusing on key performance dimensions such as capital adequacy, asset quality, management quality, earning ability, and liquidity. Methodology: The main purpose of this study is to analyze and compare the performance of Islamic and conventional banks in Palestine from 2011 to 2021, focusing on key performance dimensions such as capital adequacy, asset quality, management quality, earning ability, and liquidity. Results: The main purpose of this study is to analyze and compare the performance of Islamic and conventional banks in Palestine from 2011 to 2021, focusing on key performance dimensions such as capital adequacy, asset quality, management quality, earning ability, and liquidity. Recommendations: Islamic banks should refine their business models to adopt higher-risk, higher-profitability strategies and diversify their financing beyond Murabaha. Conventional banks should continue strengthening their liquidity positions and capital management to maintain their competitive edge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The present study aims to investigate the seasonal histological structure changes and immunoreactivity of Aquaporin 5 (AQP-5) in the ductus deferens and prostate under the light microscope. Materials and Methods: For the present study, twelve mature male camels were employed. Following the animals breeding and non-breeding seasons of slaughter under official licensing and veterinary supervision, samples were obtained from various regions of the ductus deferens and prostate gland and processed using general histology and immunohistochemical methods. Results: The secretory end pieces of the vas deferens ampulla and prostate gland of the Saudi Arabian dromedary camel were well developed during reproductive and non-reproductive seasons. The spermatozoa were noticed in the lumen of the ductus deferens during the reproductive and non-reproductive seasons. The response of AQP-5 in the ductus deferens was particularly significant throughout the not-rutting season. Moreover, during the non-breeding season, the prostate gland showed a strong to moderate response. In the breeding season, the ampulla of the ductus deferens showed an insignificant reaction. Additionally, the body and disseminated portion of the prostate gland showed a mild to moderate response. Conclusion: The results suggested that Saudi Arabian dromedary camels might produce sperm during rutting and non-rutting seasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trypanosomosis due to Trypanosoma evansi (surra) is one of the most important diseases with a significant impact on camel health and production. Trypanosoma-induced immunosuppression mechanisms, which are key factors of disease pathogenesis, have been characterized in several animal species. The present study investigated, therefore, the impact of trypanosomosis on the immunophenotype of blood leukocytes in camels. For this, the relative and absolute values of blood leukocyte populations, their expression pattern of cell surface molecules, and the numbers of the main lymphocyte subsets were compared between healthy camels and camels with clinical symptoms of chronic surra and serological evidence of exposure to Trypanosoma infection. Leukocytes were separated from the blood of healthy and diseased camels, labeled with fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies, and analyzed by flow cytometry. Compared to healthy camels, the leukogram of diseased camels was characterized by a slightly increased leukocyte count with moderate neutrophilia and monocytosis indicating a chronic inflammatory pattern that may reflect tissue injury due to the long-lasting inflammation. In addition, the analysis of lymphocyte subsets revealed a lower number and percentage of B cells in diseased than healthy camels. In vitro incubation of camel mononuclear cells with fluorochrome-labeled T. evansi revealed a higher capacity of camel B cells than T cells to bind the parasite in vitro. Furthermore, cell viability analysis of camel PBMC incubated in vitro with T. evansi whole parasites but not the purified antigens resulted in Trypanosoma-induced apoptosis and necrosis of camel B cells. Here we demonstrate an association between trypanosomosis in camels and reduced numbers of blood B cells. In vitro analysis supports a high potential of T. evansi to bind to camel B cells and induce their elimination by apoptosis and necrosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Enucleation and exenteration are widely utilized ophthalmic procedures in veterinary practice, involving the complete removal of the eye and comprehensive extraction of orbital contents, respectively. These procedures are indicated for pain relief, excision, and management of neoplasia metastases, and addressing severe medically untreatable conditions. Aim This study aimed to develop an orbital enucleation surgical approach. The study evaluated the applicability of the new approach and investigated the impact of the surgical procedure. Methods Anatomical dissection of three cadaveric heads and surgical orbital enucleation in four cadaveric heads were performed. Anatomical data was collected, and feasibility, safety and applicability of the procedure were assessed. Results Anatomical dissection showed a distinctive large orbital fossa, providing a suitable surgical window to access orbital structures. The procedure was found to be feasible, facilitating the complete removal of the orbital content. Notably, the preservation of intact eyelids was prioritized to enhance cosmetic appearance. Conclusion The presented orbital enucleation technique proved to be feasible, safe, reproducible, and required basic surgical skills to perform.

Background: Traumatic reticulopericarditis (TRP) is a rarely reported in camels. This report provides traumatic reticulopericarditis in camel. Case Description: She-camel (3 years old) with a history of anorexia, and stinky smell-bloody diarrhea for more than three weeks associated with pain, ventral thoracoabdominal edema, positive for metal detection examination that raised the suspicion of traumatic reticulopericarditis. The result of the plasma cardiac troponin I (cTnI) level was 0.253 ng/mL. Electrocardiography on admission using a standard base-apex ECG revealed an irregular rhythm of heart rate and abnormal complex morphology in QRS duration and segments (ST and TP). Elevation of the S-T segment with a slight depression in the P-R segment matched with pericarditis. Conclusion: This report suggests a rare case of traumatic reticulopericarditis and demonstrated for the first time bTn1 and ECG patterns of camel with traumatic reticulopericarditis. [Open Vet J 2024; 14(9.000): 2493-2496]

Background: Although blood urine is frequently observed in dromedary camels, little attention is gained and only it was reported as case reports. Aim: This study was carried out to examine dromedary camels suffering from red urine syndrome from the points of the clinical, etiological, hematobiochemical, ultrasonographic and pathological characteristics. Methods: Thirty-one camels with red urine and fifteen controls were enrolled. With a duration ranging from five days to nine months, clinical manifestations included weakness, red discoloration of the urine, dribbling of urine, straining during urination and abdominal pain. Blood was sampled in EDTA and plain tubes. Results: The urine red color intensity was marked in 23 camels. In 5 camels discolored red urine was moderate while red urine was voided intermittently in the remaining 3 camels. Wide stance of the hind legs and pain reactions during urination were recorded in 18 camels. In all 31 camels, urine samples were centrifuged and sedimentation of red deposits was found. Nephrolithiasis was detected in 3 animals. one female camel had bilateral hydronephrosis. Hyperechoic urine was imaged within the renal pelvis in 7 camels. In addition, hypoechoic fluid was imaged within the peritoneal cavity in 8 animals. Ruptured and collapsed urinary bladder was found in 2 male camels. In addition, bilateral pyelonephritis was found in another male camel. Abscessation of the left and right kidneys confirmed by ultrasound-guided aspiration was confirmed in 3 and 2 females, respectively. Peri-renal abscessation of the right kidney was detected in a female camel. Large, misshaped hypoechoic mass involving the right kidney was found in 1 female. A large mass king neoplasia was also imaged in a female camel distal to and compressing the left kidney, which proved histologically to be leiomyoma. Moderate to severe thickening and corrugation of the urinary bladder mucosa was detected in 18 of the diseased camels. Conclusion: This study's syndrome of red urine in camels resulted mainly from hematuria. The existing etiologies were the nephrolithiasis, cystitis, pyelonephritis, peri-renal and renal abscessation, and renal neoplasia. Ultrasonography was superior in assessing the renal parenchyma and urinary bladder for the verification of the existing nephrolithiasis, hydronephrosis, pyelonephritis, peri-renal and renal abscessation, cystitis and ruptured or perforated bladder. [Open Vet J 2024; 14(9.000): 2463-2474]

Abstract Tick-borne bacteria of the genera Rickettsia and Coxiella cause several emerging veterinary and human infectious diseases. Ticks of the genus Hyalomma are medically important vectors due to their potential role in the transmission of pathogens to vertebrate hosts. There is an inadequate knowledge on tick-borne Rickettsia spp. and Coxiella spp. in ticks infesting transhumant camels in Pakistan. In this study, we conducted a molecular survey for screening of Rickettsia spp. and Coxiella spp. in ticks infesting camels. Seven hard tick species including Hyalomma dromedarii, Hyalomma anatolicum, Hyalomma scupense, Hyalomma isaaci, Hyalomma turanicum, Hyalomma asiaticum, and Rhipicephalus sanguineus s.l were confirmed on camels in three distinct physiographic regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. A subset of morphologically identified ticks were subjected to molecular assays for the genetic characterization of ticks and the detection and genetic characterization of Rickettsia and Coxiella species using standard genetic markers. Ticks screened for pathogens resulted in the detection of Rickettsia aeschlimannii and Candidatus Rickettsia shennongii and Coxiella burnetii. The molecular analysis further reveals the presences of an undetermined Rickettsia aeschlimannii-like species, that is making a distinct phylogenetic clade with R. aeschlimannii. The detection of pathogens in camel ticks poses potential health hazards as these ticks frequently bites humans. Molecular screening of Rickettsia spp. and Coxiella spp. associated with camel ticks is a preliminary step toward the surveillance of evaluating their zoonotic threats in the region.

Abstract Background The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) carpal joint presents multiple joints and constitutes several bones and soft tissues. Radiography and/or ultrasonography of the carpus are challenging due to structural superimposition. High-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique precludes superimposed tissues and offers high soft tissue contrast in multiple sequences and planes. Hence, understanding the normal MRI anatomy is crucial during clinical investigations. Magnetic resonance imaging is highly sensitive for investigation of soft tissues and articular cartilage; therefore, it is extensively used for outlining joint anatomy and evaluation of a wide range of musculoskeletal conditions. MRI images of a specific anatomical region acquired by using multiple sequences in various planes are necessary for a complete MRI examination. Given the dearth of information on the MRI features of the dromedary camel carpus, the current study demonstrates the MRI appearance of the clinically significant structures in the camel carpus in various sequences and planes using a high-field 1.5 Tesla superconducting magnet. For this purpose, twelve cadaveric forelimbs, obtained from 6 clinically sound lameness free adult dromedary camels, were examined. Results The cortex and medulla of the radius, carpal bones and metacarpus were evaluated. Articular cartilage of the carpal joints was depicted and showed intermediate intensity. Carpal tendons expressed lower signal intensity in all pulse sequences. The collateral and inter-carpal ligaments showed mixed signal intensity. Conclusions The obtained data outlines the validation of MRI for investigation of the camel carpus and could set as a reference for interpretation in clinical patients.

Camels, known as the "Ship of the Desert," play a vital role in the ecosystems and economies of arid and semi-arid regions. They provide meat, milk, transportation, and other essential services, and their resilience to harsh environments makes them invaluable. Despite their similarities, camel breeds exhibit notable differences in size, color, and structure, with over 40 million camels worldwide. This number is projected to increase, underscoring their growing significance. Economically, camels are crucial for food production, tourism, and trade, with camel racing being particularly significant in Arab countries. Their unique physiological traits, such as low disease susceptibility and efficient water conservation, further enhance their value. Camel products, especially meat and milk, offer substantial nutritional and therapeutic benefits, contributing to their high demand. Genetic diversity studies have advanced our understanding of camels' adaptation to extreme environments. Functional genomics and whole-genome sequencing have identified genes responsible for these adaptations, aiding breeding programs and conservation efforts. High-throughput sequencing has revealed genetic markers linked to traits like milk production and disease resistance. The development of SNP chips has revolutionized genetic studies by providing a cost-effective alternative to whole-genome sequencing. These tools facilitate large-scale genotyping, essential for conserving genetic diversity and improving breeding strategies. To prevent the depletion of camel genetic diversity, it is crucial to streamline in situ and ex situ conservation efforts to maintain their ecological and economic value. A comprehensive approach to camel conservation and genetic preservation, involving advanced genomic technologies, reproductive biotechniques, and sustainable management practices, will ensure their continued contribution to human societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is an infectious pathogen; causing highly contagious, acute febrile, and economically important disease of small ruminants. The virus is known to have intrinsic ability to adapt new hosts and to cross the species barrier. The incidence of PPR has already been reported in unusual host species such as camels, bovines, and wild animals from spill-over or natural infection. Still, there are elementary gaps in our knowledge of the extent of susceptibility of camel to PPRV and the adaptability of PPRV to camel. The present study delineates the potential role of preferential codon usage patterns responsible for adaptation, host immune evasion, and transmission of PPRV to unusual hosts like old world camel species namely, dromedary and bactrian camel. The results indicate codon usage of the PPRV genome is functioned by an interplay of mutational pressure and natural selection to exhort the adaptation and fitness of PPRV in probable hosts. The indices of natural selection like the relative codon deoptimization index (RCDI) and codon adaptation index (CAI) predict the ability of PPRV to adapt and evolve in camel species. The analysis also depicts the potential role of the CpG depletion mechanism employed by PPRV to evade host adaptive immune response. The report emphasizes the need for a comprehensive national PPR surveillance plan in unusual hosts like camels for the successful implementation of the PPR Global Eradication Programme (PPR- GEP). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Piroplasmosis, a disease of domestic and wild animals, is caused by tick-borne protozoa of the genera Babesia and Theileria, while anaplasmosis is caused by tick-borne bacteria of genera Anaplasma. Hyalomma dromedarii is the most dominant tick species infesting camels in Egypt and act as a vector of piroplasms, Anaplasma, Rickettsia and Ehrlichia spp. The available information concerning the detection of these pathogens in H. dromedarii infesting camels is limited. The present study aimed to evaluate the status of these pathogens in H. dromedarii ticks over four seasons of a year, in addition to investigate the infections of piroplasms and Anaplasmataceae besides their genetic diversity starting from June 2021 till April 2022. A total of 275 semi-engorged females of H. dromedarii were collected from different slaughtered camels, Toukh city slaughterhouse then investigated by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) to detect piroplasms (Babesia spp., Theileria spp.) and Anaplasmataceae DNA targeting 18 S rRNA and 16 S rRNA genes, respectively followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analyses. Overall, piroplasms were detected in 38 ticks (13.8%), Babesia spp. was detected in 35 ticks (12.7%), while Theileria spp. was detected in one tick (0.4%). Anaplasmataceae was detected in 57 ticks (20.7%). Mixed infections of piroplasms and Anaplasmataceae were detected in 13 ticks (5%). Single infection either with piroplasms or Anaplasmataceae was detected in 25 (9%) and 44 (16%) ticks, respectively. The highest monthly rate of piroplasms was in April (spring) and Anaplasmataceae was in July (summer). Sequence analysis revealed that Babesia bigemina, Wolbachia spp. and Anaplasma marginale are the most dominant species in the examined tick samples. To the best of our knowledge, this study confirms the presence of B. bigemina, Wolbachia spp. and A. marginale in H. dromedarii in Egypt by sequencing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The camel has played a role in human civilization since its inception and holds significant importance in the customs and agricultural practices of various nations. This study examined the prevalence of internal parasitic infestations in camels within the Al-Diwaniyah and Al-Najaf provinces of Iraq from December 2021 to September 2022. A total of 200 fecal samples were randomly collected from farm camels, revealing that these animals were affected by one or more types of intestinal parasites. Nematodes exhibited the highest prevalence at 56 %, followed by Protozoa at 28.5 %, Cestodes at 14.5 %, and Trematodes at 1 %. Among these parasites, Trichostrongylus spp. had the highest percentage at 33 %, followed by Moneizia benedeni (12.5 %), Fasciola hepatica (10.5 %), Strongyloides spp. (8 %), Giardia spp. (7 %), Nematodirus spp. (6 %), and Eimeria spp. (6 %). Furthermore, mixed-species or single-species infections in camels were observed, including Anoplcephala perfoliata (4 %), Haemonchus spp. (3.5 %), Dictyocaulus spp. (3 %), Trichuris trichura (2.5 %), Entamoeba spp. (2 %), and Balantidium coli (1 %). Additionally, nested PCR was employed to identify Trichostrongylus spp., with 45.4 % of camels testing positive for this particular parasite.

Background & objectives: Vector-borne haemoprotozoan diseases comprise diverse group of single celled organism transmitted by haematophagus invertebrates. The current study was aimed at the identification of major haemoprotozoan (Babesia, Theileria and Trypanosoma) in dromedary camel of North Gujarat region in India using microscopy and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Methods: A total of 234 blood samples were screened by the microscopic and molecular detection assays. Molecular prevalence studies of Theileria, Trypanosoma spp and Babesia was undertaken using 18s ribosomal DNA, RoTat 1.2 and SS rRNA gene respectively. The data relating to microscopic and molecular prevalence along with associated risk factors were analysed by statistical methods. Results: The overall prevalence of hamoprotozoan disease based on microscopic and molecular investigation was 23.50%. The sensitivity and specificity (95% Confidence Interval) of PCR assay was 100% in comparison to microscopy (45.45 % sensitive and 100 % specific). The kappa coefficient between PCR and microscopy indicated good level of agreement with a value of 0.704 and SE of 0.159. Interpretation & conclusion: Despite holding much significance to the animal sector, little work has been undertaken in regional parts of India regarding camel parasites. The present study offers first preliminary research data investigating haemoprotozoan disease using parasitological and molecular methods in camels in the region.

Abstract Background Trichuris spp. (whipworms) are soil-transmitted helminths distributed worldwide, parasitizing several mammalian hosts such as ruminants, primates, and rodents. Trichuris spp. is one of the most common intestinal parasites affecting both humans and animals, and it can spread directly through the fecal-oral route, resulting in severe illness and financial loss. So, this work aims to detect the frequency of Trichuris spp. in camels in Beheira Governorate, Egypt, and to identify Trichuris spp. through morphometrical studies, molecular analysis, and phylogenetic analysis. Results A total of 35 dromedaries out of 127 investigated had Trichuris spp. infection, meaning that the overall prevalence was 27.56%. The age of the camel affected the infection rate, older animals (> 5 years) having a higher prevalence of infection (24%) than animals of ages ( autumn (28.13%) > spring (25.8%) > winter (25%) indicating year-round infection. T. globulosa was identified morphometrically from camels in Beheira Governorate, Egypt. The BLAST analysis revealed the presence of T. globulosa isolate from camels using the Genbank database depending on nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA (18s) and cytochrome b (Cytb) genes. Conclusion A high prevalence of T. globulosa was found in camels in Beheira Governorate, Egypt. This is the first report to confirm the identification of T. globulosa from camel based on morphometrical studies and molecular and phylogenetic analysis in Egypt. More thorough studies on the incidence, molecular, and genetic analysis of Trichuris spp. in Egypt are required in addition to camel control programs.

Abstract Background Dromedaries’ normal heart architecture and size have not been adequately examined utilizing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and topographic anatomy. Result we aimed to investigate the regular appearance of the heart and its dimensions, using MRI and cross-sectional anatomy, in mature Arabian one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius). We also analyzed hematological and cardiac biochemical markers. MRI scans were conducted on twelve camel heart cadavers using a closed 1.5-Tesla magnet with fast spin echo (FSE) weighted sequences. Subsequently, the hearts were cross-sectionally sliced. Additionally, hematobiochemical studies were conducted on ten mature live camels. The study analyzed standard cardiac dimensions including HL, BW, RA, LA, RV, LV, IVS, LAD, RAD, RVD, AoD, TCVD, and MVD. The results showed a strong positive correlation between the cardiac dimensions obtained from both gross analysis and MR images, with no significant difference between them. On both gross and MRI images, the usual structures of the heart were identified and labeled. Along with the cardiac markers (creatine kinase and troponin), the average hematological values and standard biochemical parameters were also described. Conclusion According to what we know, this investigation demonstrates, for the first time the typical heart structures and dimensions of the heart in dromedaries, and it could serve as a basis for diagnosing cardiac disorders in these animals.

Abstract Background This study explored the morphological anatomy of otic prominences in camels using advanced computed tomography (CT). Nine adult cadaver camel heads underwent CT scanning to generate detailed images of the otic prominences, mastoid process, styloid process, stylomastoid foramen, external acoustic meatus, bulla tympanica, and muscular processes. The morphological anatomy of otic prominences was studied in nine skulls. Results The anatomical features were analyzed, revealing a compact and closely collected configuration of otic prominences. Unique characteristics of the mastoid process, bulla tympanica, and styloid process were observed, challenging the conventional descriptions. Conclusions This study underscores the value of CT scans in enhancing anatomical studies and provides insights into comparative veterinary anatomy, facilitating the evaluation of various conditions and disorders in camels.

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The present study aimed to investigate the molecular epidemiology, risk factors, and haemato-biochemical changes in anaplasmosis in Indian dromedary camels. Blood samples collected from 103 camels were analysed using blood smear examination and semi-nested PCR based on the 16s rRNA gene to diagnose anaplasmosis. The prevalence of anaplasmosis was estimated to be 42.72% (95% CI: 33.59–52.37) by PCR assay and 16.5% (95% CI: 10.47–24.95%) by blood smear examination. Phylogenetic analysis of six partial sequences of 16s rRNA gene obtained in the present study indicated the involvement of multiple Anaplasma species, including A. marginale and A. platys, showing genetic similarity with cattle strains. A novel genotype related to A. camelii/A. cinensis/A. platys group was also identified. Hemato-biochemical examination revealed mild anaemia, increased serum urea nitrogen and creatinine levels, and decreased total protein and albumin levels in Anaplasma-positive animals. The infections were largely subclinical in nature, except in one camel that revealed fever, inappetence, and pale mucous membrane and responded well to treatment with oxytetracycline. To our knowledge, this is the first molecular study on camel anaplasmosis in India, indicating a high prevalence of infection and involvement of multiple Anaplasma species with potential risk for interspecies transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study was done to evaluate prevalence of mastitis in Lassi camel breed in Lasbela, Pakistan. A total of 100 camel cows were selected for milk sampling for isolation and identification of mastitis causing bacteria and biochemical tests. A questionnaire was used to know prevalence of mastitis associated with species, breed, age, parity, and udder hygiene condition, frequency of milking, practice of teat dipping, and feeding frequency of the camel cows. A t-test was used to anylyse the results and prevalence data was expressed in percentage. The total 43% prevalence of mastitis was observed in Lassi camel of of Lasbella district Balochistan, Pakistan. It was observed that prevalence of mastitis 38%, 41.18%, and 47.5% was increased with advancement in the age 4-7, 7-10, and above 10 years, respectively. It was also observed that some associated factors such as milking and feeding frequency, and udder hygine play important role in mastitis. During mastitis, significantly increased in fat, protein, total solids, solids not fat, and moisture contents, and pH and significantly declined in lactose indices was observed. Staphylococcus aureus species were dominantly found followed with Streptococcus agalactiea and Streptococcus dysagalctiea. This study will helpful to the local farmers and veterinarian regarding proper use of antimicrobial agents, and maintenance of udder hygiene to control mastitis in Lassi camel breed in Lasbela, Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the determinants of financial performance in Primary Cooperative Agriculture Development Banks operating in Punjab, India. By analysing the impact of Capital Adequacy, Asset Quality, Management Efficiency, Earnings, and Liquidity on Return on Assets (ROA), the study aims to offer insights into enhancing financial health and regional economic growth. Using a panel regression model, financial data from multiple periods and banks are analysed. Key findings indicate that maintaining adequate capital positively influences ROA, while prudent lending practices are crucial for asset quality maintenance. Efficient management enhances ROA, and higher earnings and effective asset use contribute to profitability. While liquidity management's impact is limited, its role in meeting short-term obligations remains significant. This study provides actionable insights for banks and policymakers, emphasising capital reserves, prudent lending, operational efficiency, and asset utilisation. Effective liquidity management remains important. This research contributes uniquely to understanding financial determinants in cooperative banks, guiding decision-making, policy formulation, and promoting agricultural development and economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The total fecal collection (TFC) method is a reliable method for determining the digestibility of diets by animals. In this method, the animals are kept in a metabolic cage to collect all the feces and hence it is the most accurate method to measure the digestibility of the feed. Despite the high accuracy of this method, TFC is labor intensive and time consuming when evaluating a wide range of feed samples and requires many animals. Also, considering that being surrounded by camels is accepted for a short period of time and for camels that are fed with rations containing high amounts of energy, the animals should be confined in the stall. Another disadvantage of keeping a trapped animal is the possible effect on the animal's metabolism. These problems led to separation from the animal's natural behavior. Accurate measurement of feed intake and stool collection are difficult. Digestibility coefficients can be also measured indirectly by markers. There arevarious indigestible markers including polyethylene, chromium oxide (Cr2O3), acid detergent lignin (ADL) and acid insoluble ash (AIA) to determine the digestibility of nutrients in different parts of the digestive tract. At the end of the 19th century, lignin was used as a potential internal marker to estimate digestibility. Given that there are no specific enzymes for lignin degradation in mammals or anaerobic bacteria, different results have been reported by researchers when using ADL to estimate digestibility. Digestibility was underestimated when using AIA as a natural marker. However, it is difficult to use the AIA method for grazing animals. One of the advantages of AIA compared to other indicators is the simplicity of its analysis and does not require special equipment. This study was aimed to evaluate the apparent digestibility of nutrients in camels using AIA, ADL and TFC methods. Materials and Methods: To measure the apparent digestibility of nutrients using AIA, ADL and TFC methods, four male camels (age= 1 year, weight = 116.3 ± 9.35 kg) were used. This experiment was carried out based on a completely in a fully randomized design. The experimental period was 42 days (2 periods of 21 days) with 14 days of adaptation to the experimental diets and 7 days of data collection. Camels had free access to water and feeding was done once a day at 8 AM. In order to determine the apparent digestibility of feed nutrients, feces and feed samples were collected at the end of the 7 days of the experiment. The fecal samples weighed at 8:00 AM before feeding. The camels were kept in the stall for 5 days for adaptation. Then each camel was placed in an individual cage. In this experiment, three types of agricultural waste were used, including wheat straw, pomegranate pomace and chicken manure. Results and Discussion: The results showed a significant difference in the digestibility coefficients of dry matter, organic matter, crude fat, neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber between the two methods of AIA and TFC in diets containing wheat straw or pomegranate pomace (P<0.05). There was no significant difference in the digestibility coefficients of nutrients of wheat straw diet with chicken manure between the two methods of AIA and TFC. The recovery percentage of AIA marker in diet containing 75% wheat straw + 25% poultry manure was 105.14±17.08. Conclusions: In general, it seems that due to the weak correlation between the three methods of measuring digestibility and considering the existing limitations, including the cost and many facilities, especially in large livestock, in determining digestibility with the method TFC and ADL, the AIA method can be used to determine digestibility in camels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Subclinical mastitis in camels, an inflammation of the udder without visible signs, can reduce milk quality and raise bacteria levels. Regular monitoring of camel milk is crucial for consumer safety. Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted in Jigjiga city, Ethiopia to investigate the prevalence and characteristics of subclinical mastitis in she- camels. The study included 244 lactating she-camels from three privately- owned camel dairy farms, and a questionnaire survey was conducted with 60 camel owners. Results: The overall prevalence of subclinical mastitis in she-camels was 10.6% (26/244), with no significant difference among the studied dairy farms. Risk factors that influenced the result of California Mastitis Test (CMT) included age and udder and leg hygiene. The study revealed that S. aureus was the most prevalent bacterium among the isolated bacteria, with a prevalence rate of 34.5%. This was followed by S. agalactiae, S. dysgalactiae, and Pasteurella multocida, with prevalence rates of 29.8, 19.4, and 16.2%, respectively. Among the isolated bacteria, 84.5% were sensitive to Erythromycin, 60% to Streptomycin, 44.7% to Oxytetracycline, and 36.7% to Tetracycline. Interviews with camel owners revealed that 66.7% used mixed herd grazing methods and reported feed shortage. Treatment practices for sick camels included modern veterinary drugs, traditional medicines, or a combination of both. The owners of camel dairy farms did not maintain proper hygiene practices during milking, such as not using soap when washing hands. Conclusion: Addressing camel mastitis necessitates access to alternative drugs, comprehensive herder training, and enhanced management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Trichuris spp. (whipworms) are soil-transmitted helminths distributed worldwide, parasitizing several mammalian hosts such as ruminants, primates, and rodents. Trichuris spp. is one of the most common intestinal parasites affecting both humans and animals, and it can spread directly through the fecal-oral route, resulting in severe illness and financial loss. So, this work aims to detect the frequency of Trichuris spp. in camels in Beheira Governorate, Egypt, and to identify Trichuris spp. through morphometrical studies, molecular analysis, and phylogenetic analysis. Results: A total of 35 dromedaries out of 127 investigated had Trichuris spp. infection, meaning that the overall prevalence was 27.56%. The age of the camel affected the infection rate, older animals (> 5 years) having a higher prevalence of infection (24%) than animals of ages (< 3 years) (20%) than animals of ages (3–5 years) (19.14%). According to season: Trichuris spp. showed a unique pattern in camels in different seasons: summer (31.25%) > autumn (28.13%) > spring (25.8%) > winter (25%) indicating year-round infection. T. globulosa was identified morphometrically from camels in Beheira Governorate, Egypt. The BLAST analysis revealed the presence of T. globulosa isolate from camels using the Genbank database depending on nuclear small subunit ribosomal RNA (18s) and cytochrome b (Cytb) genes. Conclusion: A high prevalence of T. globulosa was found in camels in Beheira Governorate, Egypt. This is the first report to confirm the identification of T. globulosa from camel based on morphometrical studies and molecular and phylogenetic analysis in Egypt. More thorough studies on the incidence, molecular, and genetic analysis of Trichuris spp. in Egypt are required in addition to camel control programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Dromedaries' normal heart architecture and size have not been adequately examined utilizing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and topographic anatomy. Result: we aimed to investigate the regular appearance of the heart and its dimensions, using MRI and cross-sectional anatomy, in mature Arabian one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius). We also analyzed hematological and cardiac biochemical markers. MRI scans were conducted on twelve camel heart cadavers using a closed 1.5-Tesla magnet with fast spin echo (FSE) weighted sequences. Subsequently, the hearts were cross-sectionally sliced. Additionally, hematobiochemical studies were conducted on ten mature live camels. The study analyzed standard cardiac dimensions including HL, BW, RA, LA, RV, LV, IVS, LAD, RAD, RVD, AoD, TCVD, and MVD. The results showed a strong positive correlation between the cardiac dimensions obtained from both gross analysis and MR images, with no significant difference between them. On both gross and MRI images, the usual structures of the heart were identified and labeled. Along with the cardiac markers (creatine kinase and troponin), the average hematological values and standard biochemical parameters were also described. Conclusion: According to what we know, this investigation demonstrates, for the first time the typical heart structures and dimensions of the heart in dromedaries, and it could serve as a basis for diagnosing cardiac disorders in these animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A variety of parameters, including liquefaction and semen viscosity, affect the sperm's ability to travel and reach the egg for fertilization and conception. Given that the details behind the viscosity of the semen in male camels have not yet been fully clarified, the purpose of this study was to ascertain how the addition of papain affected the viscosity of fresh diluted camel semen. The study examined semen samples derived from camels that had distinct viscosities. Sperm motility, viability, abnormal sperm percentage, concentration, viscosity, morphometry, acrosome integrity and liquefaction were among the evaluations following 0, 5, 10, 20 or 30 min of incubation at 37°C with papain (0.004 mg/mL, 0.04 mg/mL or 0.4 mg/mL; a semen sample without papain was used as a control). A statistically significant interaction between the effects of papain concentrations and incubation time was found (F = 41.68, p =.0001). Papain concentrations (p =.0001) and incubation times (p =.0001) both had a statistically significant impact on viscosity, according to a simple main effects analysis. A lower viscosity was found (p <.05) at 0.04 mg/mL (0.1 ± 0.0) after 10 min of incubation. A simple main effects analysis showed that papain concentrations and incubation time have a statistically significant effect on sperm motility (p =.0001). At 0.04 mg/mL papain, the sperm motility % was higher (p <.05) after 10 min (64.4 ± 4.8), 20 min (68.4 ± 6.2), and 30 min incubation (72.2 ± 6.6) compared to 0, 5 min (38.3 ± 4.1 and 51.6 ± 5.0, respectively). In conclusion, the fresh diluted camel semen had the lowest viscosity properties after 10 min of incubation with 0.04 mg/mL papain, without compromising sperm motility, viability, acrosome integrity and sperm morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study explored the morphological anatomy of otic prominences in camels using advanced computed tomography (CT). Nine adult cadaver camel heads underwent CT scanning to generate detailed images of the otic prominences, mastoid process, styloid process, stylomastoid foramen, external acoustic meatus, bulla tympanica, and muscular processes. The morphological anatomy of otic prominences was studied in nine skulls. Results: The anatomical features were analyzed, revealing a compact and closely collected configuration of otic prominences. Unique characteristics of the mastoid process, bulla tympanica, and styloid process were observed, challenging the conventional descriptions. Conclusions: This study underscores the value of CT scans in enhancing anatomical studies and provides insights into comparative veterinary anatomy, facilitating the evaluation of various conditions and disorders in camels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since decades, Newcastle disease (ND) has become endemic in the poultry population of the Indian subcontinent. ND is a highly contagious disease of poultry and other avian species. However, the genetic nature of ND viruses circulating in the rock pigeons is unraveled. The present investigation is a part of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) surveillance in wild birds. Two velogenic NDV strains could be isolated from apparently healthy rock pigeons, thus establishing the status of carrier/reservoir host. The fusion protein cleavage site in the fusion protein has multiple basic amino acid (RRRKRF) motifs similar to velogenic isolates. Phylogenetic analysis based on complete fusion gene sequences confirmed that the isolates belong to NDV sub genotype XIII 2.2. Further analysis revealed several amino acid substitutions in the hypervariable region, heptad repeat regions and neutralizing epitopes of the fusion protein and heptad repeat regions and antigenic sites of the hemagglutinin - neuraminidase (HN) protein that are critical for fusion. A unique D170A substitution in the neutralizing epitope is identified that is critical for structure and function of the fusion protein. Mutations within the virulence determinants including fusion (F) and HN, elucidate continuous evolution of the viruses among the rock pigeons. Accidental spillover of these mutated viruses into commercial poultry operations may result in disease outbreaks with economic breakdown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common causes of mastitis worldwide. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) patterns of S. aureus in mastitic milk samples collected from camel farms in Matrouh Governorate, Egypt. A total of 200 mastitic camel milk samples were evaluated for S. aureus using both conventional culture-based and molecular-based methods. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of S. aureus isolates was conducted using disc diffusion and agar dilution methods, with antibiotic resistance genes identified through polymerase chain reaction with specific primers. Out of samples tested, 60 (30.00%) were positive for S. aureus. The isolates displayed the highest of resistance against piperacillin-tazobactam (55.00%) followed by trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (45.00%) and amoxicillin (40.00%). Half of the isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR). The AMR genes included methicillin-resistant gene (mecA), ß-lactamase gene (blaZ), tetracycline resistance gene (tetK), erythromycin resistance gene (ermB) and vancomycin resistant gene (vanA) were detected in 100%, 100%, 95.00%, 90.00% and 20.00% of the isolates, respectively. In conclusion, the presence of MDRS aureus as a cause of clinical camel mastitis is a significant veterinary and public health concern. These findings highlight the importance of proper antibiotic use in Egyptian camel farms and the need for molecular techniques to fully understand the genetic profile of antimicrobial-resistant S. aureus isolates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single cell immunophenotyping by flow cytometry has proven a useful and high sensitive method for the analysis of immune cell composition and phenotype in different lymphatic and non-lymphatic tissues. Fixation of stained cells is usually recommended when the cells need to be preserved for later analysis by flow cytometry to avoid changes in cell morphology and expression of the level of cellular antigens. In the present study, a stain-fix approach was used in combination with flow cytometry to investigate the impact of fixation of camel lymph node cell suspension (n = 5 camels) after labeling with monoclonal antibodies to some leukocyte antigens on their cellular composition and expression density of immune cell markers. The obtained results indicated that camel lymph node cell suspension stained with fluorochrome-conjugated mAbs to leukocyte antigens and fixed with paraformaldehyde (PFA) will keep stable values for their immune cell composition for at least six days when analyzed by flow cytometry. However, if cell subsets were to be identified, fixation may result in different values that were obtained when analyzing fresh stained unfixed cells. Especially the instability in the fluorescence intensity of CD14, CD172a, and MHCII will lead to significant changes in the frequency of monocyte subsets (classical versus intermediate or nonclassical) and the identification of macrophage functional subtype (M1 versus M2). Similarly, the instability in CD44 expression may affect the identified phenotype of T cells with significantly lower frequency of activated T cells. In conclusion, flow cytometric data collected from stained and PFA-fixed cell suspension prepared from camel lymph nodes should be interpreted with care if the functional subtype of cells is to be identified based on surface molecule expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Egypt, tick-borne diseases pose a significant threat to human and animal health, and the threat to dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius), the country's dominant camelid species, is of particular concern. These animals are frequently infested with ticks, and may thus develop tick-borne diseases or become reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens. However, there is a paucity of data on tick infestation in Egyptian camels, especially in the south of the country. Accordingly, we aimed to determine the prevalence of tick infestation in southern Egyptian camel populations (in Luxor and Aswan governorates), and identify the hemoprotozoan parasites carried by camel-infesting ticks. Camels were checked for ticks during veterinary examination at quarantine and household checks, and ticks were collected from infested camels for species identification using morphological examination and PCR analyses. Tick and hemoprotozoan species were identified using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool analysis with subsequent confirmation in phylogenetic analyses. All camel-infesting ticks belonged to the species Hyalomma dromedarii, and were clustered with ticks of this species previously found in Egypt in a phylogenetic tree based on the 16S rRNA gene. Molecular analysis targeting the 18S rRNA gene revealed the presence of hitherto undetected hemoprotozoan parasites, Colpodella spp., in 30/297 (10.1 %) camel-infesting ticks. In phylogenetic analysis, these Colpodella spp. were highly homologous (94–98.6 %) with Colpodella spp. previously deposited in GenBank with accession numbers OQ540590Q, MH208621, and GQ411073, which relate to Colpodella spp. previously detected from Haemaphysalis longicornis, Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, and humans in China. PCR analyses with spherical body protein-4 (SBP-4) gene-specific primers revealed Babesia bovis in 16/297 (5 %) of camel-infesting ticks, however, Babesia bigemina and Theileria annulata were not detected. Here, we report the first detection of Colpodella spp. in H. dromedarii in Egypt. Further epidemiological studies are needed to assess the risk to camels and humans, and the transmission dynamics. Based on the high tick infestation rates in Egyptian camels and the identification of previously unreported protozoan hemoparasites in ticks, we consider that the dromedary should be subject to surveillance as a sentinel species for tick-borne diseases in Egypt. Our findings underline the need for surveillance and collecting data on lesser known pathogens circulating in camel-infesting ticks, as part of a public health strategy for dealing with tick-borne diseases in Egypt.