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We show that the first and only experiment of U.S. mass production of houses, in a factory-built home industry that became known as the Mobile Home industry (and today, as the Manufactured Home industry), was a tremendous success. Mobile Home prices-psf fell by two-thirds from 1955 to 1973, as productivity soared; home quality rose significantly, with Mobile Home building codes receiving ANSI certification in 1963 and National Fire Protection Association co-sponsorship in 1965; as production soared, Mobile Homes accounted for one-third of single-family homes produced in the early 1970s. These feats were achieved as industry leaders developed state-wide building codes for Mobile Homes. This dramatically increased the size of the market for them. Factories invested in specialized machinery to produce simple and standardized products, substituting machinery for labor. Given each factory produced under the same code, industry-induced productivity gains followed, including external effects and directed technical change. Lessons from this industry give insights into critical issues in today's residential construction industry. The poor productivity performance of today's residential construction industry is considered a puzzle. But this poor performance is not new. Our forebears before 1950 wrote extensively about the sector's poor performance, attributing it to the failure to adopt factory-built housing. Our analysis strongly supports this view for their time and ours. It also supports their view, like that of Levitt & Sons, that factory production is the only way "to produce the homes and apartments needed to house our expanding population and our underprivileged citizens in a comfortable, dignified, decent way," (U.S. Senate 1969). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The current code provisions in ACI 440.11 are based on the flexural theory that applies to slender members and may not represent the actual structural behavior when the shear span-to-reinforcement depth ratio is less than 2.5 (i.e., deep members). The Strut-and-tie method (STM) can be a better approach to design deep members; however, this chapter is not included in the code. Research has shown that STM models used for steel-reinforced concrete (RC) give satisfactory results when applied to glass fiber-reinforced polymer-reinforced (GFRP)-RC members with a/d less than 2.5. Therefore, this study is carried out to provide insights into the use of STM for GFRP-RC deep members based on the available literature and to highlight the necessity for the inclusion of a new chapter addressing the use of STM in the ACI 440.11 Code. It includes a design example to show the implications of ACI 440.11 code provisions when applied to GFRP-RC deep members (i.e., isolated footings) and compares it when designed as per STM provided in ACI 318-19. It was observed that current code provisions in ACI 440.11 required more concrete thickness (i.e., h = 1.12 m) leading to implementation challenges. However, the required dimensions decreased (i.e., h = 0.91 m) when the design was carried out as per STM. Due to the novelty of GFRP reinforcement, current code provisions may limit its extensive use in RC buildings, particularly in footings given the water table issues and excavation costs. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt innovative methods such as STM to design GFRP-RC deep members if allowed by the code.

The current code provisions in ACI 440.11 are based on the flexural theory that applies to slender members and may not represent the actual structural behavior when the shear span-to-reinforcement depth ratio is less than 2.5 (i.e., deep members). The Strut-and-tie method (STM) can be a better approach to design deep members; however, this chapter is not included in the code. Research has shown that STM models used for steel-reinforced concrete (RC) give satisfactory results when applied to glass fiber-reinforced polymer-reinforced (GFRP)-RC members with a/d less than 2.5. Therefore, this study is carried out to provide insights into the use of STM for GFRP-RC deep members based on the available literature and to highlight the necessity for the inclusion of a new chapter addressing the use of STM in the ACI 440.11 Code. It includes a design example to show the implications of ACI 440.11 code provisions when applied to GFRP-RC deep members (i.e., isolated footings) and compares it when designed as per STM provided in ACI 318-19. It was observed that current code provisions in ACI 440.11 required more concrete thickness (i.e., h = 1.12 m) leading to implementation challenges. However, the required dimensions decreased (i.e., h = 0.91 m) when the design was carried out as per STM. Due to the novelty of GFRP reinforcement, current code provisions may limit its extensive use in RC buildings, particularly in footings given the water table issues and excavation costs. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt innovative methods such as STM to design GFRP-RC deep members if allowed by the code. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating flood mitigation strategies into building codes on a global scale is a noteworthy initiative aimed at reducing the risk associated with flood-prone areas. The field of flood mitigation is constantly evolving and indirectly influences future building codes. However, there is a significant gap in research regarding optimizing building codes to mitigate flood-related risks. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the publication trends in mainstreaming flood mitigation into building codes by identifying the current state and critical key areas that potentially impact future building codes using bibliometric analysis. This research adopted a systematic review using the Web of Science database from 2002 to 2022, using the keywords «building code» and «flood». Bibliometric indicators were employed to summarize the key findings, including subject areas, publication trends, leading global contributors, influential institutions, citation patterns, authorship dynamics, and keyword analysis. The realm of research has experienced noteworthy expansion, emphasizing the necessity for further investigation. The findings also indicate that critical areas require attention in performance-based design, retrofitting of existing buildings, community resilience, the long-term effectiveness of flood mitigation measures, and the equity and social needs of the implications of flood-resilient building codes. In conclusion, such investigations are crucial in reducing community risk and creating resilient and sustainable communities in flood-prone areas. INSET: c. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The grand building code called Yingzao fashi, drafted in the twelfth-century Song dynasty, was used as a technical reference guide and assisted previous researchers in analyses of premodern Chinese building structures and construction, yet how the building code entangled with contemporary society, coetaneous challenges and the changing courses of political power deserves a comprehensive investigation. This study applies the research approach of textual analysis to track the vicissitude of the grand building code, examine these contemporary reforming attempts related to the building code, and scrutinise the consequence of the national building code when it was implemented in the later Song dynasty. By tracing the formation, promulgation and implementation of Yingzao fashi in premodern China, this paper reveals that the building standards are the product of emerging philosophical theories and the standardisation of practices is the key strategy in the building and construction reforms. It also concludes that the political and power factors would dominantly influence the evolution of the building code and thwart its effectiveness, thus producing a result opposite to its initial intention in practice.

Climate change has emerged as a global focal point, notably affecting vulnerable countries like Pakistan. The country faces heightened risk, prompting concern among many due to its susceptibility to climate-related hazards. An imperative challenge arising from this phenomenon is the necessary shift towards sustainable energy, particularly concerning energy consumption within the building sector. Buildings significantly contribute to daily energy usage and subsequent GHG emissions. In Pakistan, transitioning to energy-efficient building stock holds pivotal importance in mitigating climate change impacts. This hinges on establishing a robust institutional framework and regulatory structure centered around energy efficiency. While Pakistan possesses policies and national guidelines advocating for energy-efficient buildings, their practical enforcement and application remain inadequate. The inception of the Building Energy Code of Pakistan in 1990, based on ASHRAE 90.1 standards, marked a step forward. However, obstacles rooted in institutional weakness and limited capacity building have impeded its effective adoption and adherence. Although the Energy Provisions of 2011 introduced modifications, their scope remained confined mainly to commercial structures. This paper conducts an extensive assessment of Pakistan's existing institutional and regulatory framework for building energy efficiency and transition. Drawing on literature insights and stakeholder perspectives, an in-depth understanding of prevailing policies and institutions uncovers underlying reasons for noncompliance and limited implementation. Additionally, input was gathered from stakeholders through interviews, aiming to identify barriers obstructing the reinforcement of building energy efficiency measures in Pakistan. Discourse and narrative analysis, informed by literature and stakeholder interviews, revealed the significance of awareness, participation, coordination, capacity building, technical expertise, finance, and resources as key factors contributing to deficient compliance and implementation of existing codes and policy guidelines. This paper also proposes actionable recommendations to expedite the transition towards a sustainable, energy-efficient building stock in Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new American Concrete Institute (ACI) design code for glass fiber–reinforced polymer (GFRP)–reinforced concrete (RC) members specifies a single value of 1.20 for the bond-dependent coefficient (kb) of all types of GFRP bars. This value was chosen based on test data from this project, as well as a compilation of data available in the literature. This paper reports on an experimental study that assessed the kb for the new generation of GFRP bars from five different manufacturers with different surface types: deformed/ribbed, helically deformed, helically grooved, double-helical wrap/sand-coated, and sand-coated. Two bar sizes (No. 5 and No. 8)—with 15.9 and 25.4 mm nominal diameters representing the typical range of GFRP-reinforcing bars used in practice as longitudinal reinforcement in concrete members subjected to bending—were selected from each of the manufacturers. Five RC beam replicates were used to increase experimental accuracy. Therefore, a total of 60 beams, including 50 beams reinforced with GFRP bars and 10 control beams reinforced with conventional steel bars for comparison purposes, were constructed and tested to failure according to a predetermined test method. Based on the analysis, the study confirms using the bond-dependent coefficient value of 1.20 as adopted in the new ACI design code for GFRP–RC members. This value is recommended for GFRP bars complying with (or exceeding) the material specification listed in the ASTM International standard specification for solid round GFRP bars for concrete reinforcement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has emerged as a global focal point, notably affecting vulnerable countries like Pakistan. The country faces heightened risk, prompting concern among many due to its susceptibility to climate-related hazards. An imperative challenge arising from this phenomenon is the necessary shift towards sustainable energy, particularly concerning energy consumption within the building sector. Buildings significantly contribute to daily energy usage and subsequent GHG emissions. In Pakistan, transitioning to energy-efficient building stock holds pivotal importance in mitigating climate change impacts. This hinges on establishing a robust institutional framework and regulatory structure centered around energy efficiency. While Pakistan possesses policies and national guidelines advocating for energy-efficient buildings, their practical enforcement and application remain inadequate. The inception of the Building Energy Code of Pakistan in 1990, based on ASHRAE 90.1 standards, marked a step forward. However, obstacles rooted in institutional weakness and limited capacity building have impeded its effective adoption and adherence. Although the Energy Provisions of 2011 introduced modifications, their scope remained confined mainly to commercial structures. This paper conducts an extensive assessment of Pakistan's existing institutional and regulatory framework for building energy efficiency and transition. Drawing on literature insights and stakeholder perspectives, an in-depth understanding of prevailing policies and institutions uncovers underlying reasons for non-compliance and limited implementation. Additionally, input was gathered from stakeholders through interviews, aiming to identify barriers obstructing the reinforcement of building energy efficiency measures in Pakistan. Discourse and narrative analysis, informed by literature and stakeholder interviews, revealed the significance of awareness, participation, coordination, capacity building, technical expertise, finance, and resources as key factors contributing to deficient compliance and implementation of existing codes and policy guidelines. This paper also proposes actionable recommendations to expedite the transition towards a sustainable, energy-efficient building stock in Pakistan.

The star-labelling programme for residential buildings was introduced by India in 2020 and applies to all residential buildings with no lower limit on the built-up area or electrical demand. The energy-star label for a residential building is awarded against the notified standard by the regulatory body and electric vehicles (EVs) have not been accommodated as a load for residential buildings. The energy consumption of an existing residential building is taken from a study already carried out and compared with the requirement of the Indian residential star-labelling programme with an EV as a plugged-in load. An annual energy gap of 6060 kWh for the existing residential buildings considered in this study for five-star building energy labels increases to 7784 kWh if the EV load is added to the building load. The residential building will lose two energy stars if it caters to the EV load and, to bridge this energy gap, the replacement of existing electrical appliances with five-star-rated energy appliances, employing grid-connected rooftop solar photovoltaics (PV) and retrofit of the building envelope are considered. The techno-economic potential of rooftop solar PV and building envelope retrofitting for existing residential buildings is explored using RETScreen® and eQUEST software, respectively. The study establishes that the installation of rooftop solar PV can accommodate the additional load of EVs and can bridge half and three-quarters of the energy gap to achieve five energy stars for an existing building with and without EVs, respectively. It is the most economical option among the options explored in this study. The target Energy Performance Index is achievable by high-end energy consumers (12 000 kWh/year) by additional measures, the replacement of inefficient electrical appliances and building envelope retrofitting in addition to the installation of rooftop solar PV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an attempt at a better understanding of design provisions of ACI CODE-440.11-22, building code for the design of glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP)-reinforced concrete (RC) columns. Sway and a non-sway column examples originally designed with steel reinforcement were redesigned using GFRP longitudinal bars and ties as per provisions of ACI CODE- 440.11-22 to analyze the effect of changing reinforcement type. Columns were designed with both low-modulus (Ef = 6500 ksi), and high-modulus (Ef = 8700 ksi) GFRP bars. A parametric study was carried out by varying the concrete compressive strength, the cross-section aspect ratio, and the resultant load eccentricity. GFRP-RC columns require larger cross-section dimensions and more reinforcement area than steel-RC columns irrespective of the GFRP elastic modulus when subjected to the same demand. The concrete strength has a significant effect on the dimensions of GFRP-RC columns, and rectangular sections were found to be more efficient than square sections with the same gross concrete area in the presence of moment. GFRP-RC columns subject to high eccentricity loads take advantage of GFRP tensile properties and, thus, are more efficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Any public infrastructure has a set service life limit. In the Indonesian case, the public building has a 50-year design life. This paper presents a performance assessment of a multiple-story building in Aceh-Indonesia. A multi-story Faculty of Engineering Universitas Syiah Kuala building was used in this study. This multi-story building structure has been used for more than 24 years since it was built in 1998. This structure is 29.4 m long, 13 m wide, and 14.4 m tall in geometric terms. This study reveals how this three-story building behaves, including displacement, base shear, and structure performance level per ASCE 41-17 criteria. The processes in this study are broken down into various stages, including pushover analysis and comparing the building's current natural frequency. ETABS software was used to model building structures. According to the study, the building's performance is still more or less similar to the initial plan. Pushover in the X-direction (Push X) is believed to be immediate occupancy (IO), and pushover in the Y-direction (Push Y) is believed to be life safety (LS). The pushover analysis results for Push X suggested that the structure is safe and retains rigidity. Push Y indicated minor damage within the life safety category after a service life of 24 years. This pushover analysis indicated that the structure has reduced its rigidity, making it less able to resist further displacement. Based on the base shear, which experiences a displacement that is significantly greater than the estimate at the original planning stage, it is known that stiffness decreases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Indonesian region is one of the countries with high seismicity because it is located on the Ring of Fire. This article describes and analyzes regulations regarding earthquake-prone areas on the southwest coast of Sumatra Island, especially in Bengkulu. Data related to earthquake and disaster was taken using the literature method from several previous research results and disaster reports from government agencies. The results of the study show that the potential for earthquake hazard is dominating Bengkulu City. Several policies and regulations regarding urban land use were issued, but they must be further aligned with the objective of earthquake disaster mitigation. Almost all areas are located in moderate seismic hazard areas, so general rules and parameters are needed for classification structures; this is a must to ensure that in the event of an earthquake, human life is protected. Detailed spatial plans and zoning regulations become important documents that can regulate spatial use in detail, accompanied by calculations related to the density and environmental conditions of the area given spatial provisions.

This paper aims to analyze practical considerations in the design of glass fiber-reinforced polymer-reinforced concrete (GFRP-RC) beams based on the newly adopted ACI CODE-440.11-22, addressing strength, serviceability, and detailing criteria. A beam example was taken from the ACI Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook and redesigned using GFRP bars and stirrups to analyze the effect of changing the reinforcement type. In the first phase, the beam was designed as an over-reinforced member with high-modulus (Ef = 60,000 MPa) and low-modulus (Ef = 44,815 MPa) GFRP bars. In the second phase, a parametric study was carried out to analyze the impact of changing key design parameters--namely, bond factor kb, concrete compressive strength fc', and the maximum deflection limit. GFRP-RC beams require more reinforcement area compared to conventional steel-RC, which may result in bar congestion. Current Code provisions related to detailing in particular are based on conservative assumptions due to a lack of experimentation and greatly penalize the design of GFRP-RC beams. The current Code provisions for development length, bar spacing, skin reinforcement, and stress at service make GFRP-RC design challenging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The promotion of risk-targeted hazard as the basis of seismic design internationally has increased over the past decade. Risk-targeted hazard estimates are derived through convolution of hazard curves with representative fragility functions and provide a means to target uniform risk across a region. Using risk targets also enables performance objectives of building codes that are consistent with other life risks and can include societal input into the expected performance of structures. Current design procedures using a uniform-hazard spectrum are unable to provide equal risk across the country due to variation in the shapes of hazard curves in different locations and uncertainty in structural response. In this article a framework is proposed, which can be used with national seismic hazard models, to produce risk-targeted hazard spectra for seismic design. This study extends the risk-targeted hazard framework through full quantification of epistemic uncertainty in seismic hazard and includes multiple risk targets for individual and societal risk at the building and city scales. The article describes a framework that can be used to adjust current seismic design force levels in New Zealand standards to target uniform seismic risk for buildings considering both the performance of individual buildings and the performance of cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many changes have been made to the design response spectrum used in the ASCE 7 Standard in recent years. One parameter that has not been investigated or revisited since its first appearance in FEMA 450-1/2003 is the long-period transition period parameter, TL. The long-period transition period parameter was introduced and defined as the corner period that marks the transition from the constant velocity to the constant displacement segments of the design response spectrum. The long-period transition period parameter is primarily important for long-period structures such as high-rise buildings and bridges. The most current estimation of TL used in engineering design standards is loosely based on a correlation between modal magnitude Mw and TL that does not account for stress drop Δ σ or the crustal velocity in the source region β. This study aims to include both Δ σ and β in its estimation of TL. Modal magnitude is obtained from disaggregation data from the 2018 National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM) for the conterminous United States (CONUS) and from the 2021 NSHM for Hawaii (HI). The parameter β is determined from previous literature. Then, inversion of ground motion models for Central and Eastern United States (CEUS) is used to determine Δ σ for CEUS events, and published information is used to determine Δ σ for Western United States (WUS) events and HI events. Then, the definition of the corner period is used to determine TL. The results yield a generally more conservative (or longer) estimation of TL than the estimation that is currently used in engineering design standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The building code of any country is considered to be a basic technical guidance document for the seismic design of structures. However, building codes are typically developed for the whole country, without considering site specific models that incorporate detailed site-specific data. Therefore, the adequacy of the design spectrum for building codes may sometimes be questionable. To study the sufficiency of the building codes of Pakistan (BCP-SP-2007), a deterministic seismic hazard analysis (DSHA) based spectrum was developed for a site in the Muzaffargarh area, Pakistan, using an updated earthquake catalogue, seismic source model, and a next generation attenuation model (NGA-WEST-2). Further, an International Building Code (IBC-2000) spectrum was developed for the study area to compare the results. The DSHA-based response spectrum resulted in a peak ground acceleration (PGA) value of 0.21 g for the Chaudwan fault. The evaluation of BCP-SP-2007 and IBC-2000 spectra provided a critical assessment for analyzing the associated margins. A comparison with the DSHA-based response spectrum showed that the BCP-SP-2007 design spectrum mostly overlapped with the DSHA spectrum unlike IBC-2000. However, special attention is needed for designing buildings in the study area when considering earthquake periods longer than 1 s, and the BCP-SP-2007 spectrum can be enhanced when considering a period range of 0.12–0.64 s. Finally, BCP-SP-2007 is based on a probabilistic approach and its comparison with deterministic results showed the significance of both methods in terms of design.

Patrons of assembly spaces have a reasonable expectation of safe and healthy indoor environments, the subject of planned efforts to ensure safety from officials ranging from politicians to building inspectors. These efforts include inspecting building fitness, management and safety governance. A key component of guaranteeing safe assembly spaces is policy enforcement, an area overlapping inspections and governance. In New York City impartial inspectors are a necessity, due to the potential for local bribery and extortion. Quid pro quo, or a favour granted in expectation of a favour returned, is a symptom of a corrupt process of governance and can negatively impact the legitimacy of building safety enforcement when that enforcement is influenced by politics or corrupt agents. Requirements for building occupant safety are vulnerable to election cycles and priorities tend to shift in the aftermath of specific motivating events. They are further complicated by omissions in, and overlapping of, responsibilities for enforcement. Fire safety in New York City has been of distinctive relevance because of the role the New York Fire Department played as a building inspector and due to the Knapp Commission outcomes in 1972. This article has two aims: to use case studies of New York City social club fires to identify limiting factors in improving buildings for occupants in the wake of motivating events and to contextualise these factors within the broader history of politics in New York City. Policies are tracked through governing administrations to shed light on how political decisions can contribute to catastrophes in places of assembly. The resulting analysis highlights a typical conflict between political pressures on mayors while in office and occupant safety in social club venues, as well as how confusing rules for the enforcement of safety regulations contribute to unsafe conditions for building occupants. Vulnerable communities were especially at risk in the cases examined; specifically, immigrant communities as they migrated to and settled in New York City, moving to older neighbourhoods and socialising in converted spaces. Key issues identified relate to venue operations in building conditions, occupant behaviour and regulation and enforcement. Failures on all three counts were identified in each of the cases examined in this article. However, due to its recurring cycle of failures and its overarching relationship to the other two factors, regulation and enforcement stands out as the most pressing issue for improving safety for occupants of social clubs and other assembly spaces.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) envisions sufficient housing access for its citizens, but the Ministry of Housing is unable to fulfil the housing requirements across various population segments. This necessitates research on architectural designs. This study reviewed relevant research over the past decade (housing design patterns and trends) derived from code-todocument analysis with ATLAS.ti 8, as well as the state of the housing design discipline. A total of 33 pertinent studies published between 2011 and 2021 were elicited through a keyword search from specific databases (Scopus, ScienceDirect and Emerald Insight) and divided thematically based on financial, social and sustainability factors. The review, which emphasised the design process, identified little correlation between the process and a systematic attempt to fulfil citizens' requirements. Both knowledge and praxis-oriented gaps were ascertained in the interior housing design process. Specifically, this study evaluated empirical works on housing designs and elaborated on the research area based on KSA citizens' financial, social and sustainability needs. This two-fold review presents a synthesis of current literature for local scholars and functions as a guideline for filling knowledge gaps that require bridging in future works and for house designs and interiors to complement KSA citizens' requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overdesign of concrete mixtures and substandard concrete acceptance testing practices significantly impact the concrete industry's role in sustainable construction. This study evaluates the impact of overdesign on the sustainability of concrete and embodied carbon emissions at the national and project scales. In addition, this paper reviews quality results from a concrete producer survey; established industry standards and their role in acceptance testing in the building codes; the reliance on proper acceptance testing by the licensed design professional, building code official, and the project owner; and the carbon footprints that result from overdesign of concrete mixtures. In 2020, a field survey conducted on over 100 projects documented Pennsylvania's quality of field testing. Of those surveyed, only 15% of the projects met the testing criteria within the ASTM and building code requirements. As a result, the total overdesign-induced cement consumption is as large as 6.7% of the estimated cement used in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: While poplar (Populus spp.) is an important source of raw materials for the wood processing sector in many regions of the world, in New Zealand it has a reputation for producing poor grade recoveries of sawn timber that is unsuitable for structural applications. However, the 'Kawa' poplar clone (Populus deltoides Marshall x P. yunnanensis Dode), which has relatively high wood density, could yield structural timber. This, along with evidence demonstrating building code compliance, would improve utilisation options for this species in New Zealand. Methods: Sawn timber conversion and grade recovery were quantified for a 28-year-old pruned stand of 'Kawa' poplar grown in Northland, New Zealand. A sample of 90 mm x 45 mm structural boards were tested to determine their mechanical properties and the resulting strength class. Boron preservative retention and penetration were measured to determine whether timber could be treated to the level required under New Zealand's building standards. Density, modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture were assessed on small defect-free specimens taken from different radial and vertical positions within trees to determine intra-stem and inter-stem variation in these properties. Results: The overall conversion of logs to sawn timber was 53%, with approximately 94% of this recovery consisting of graded timber. The most common sources of downgrade were knots, pruning wounds, and end-splits. Approximately 70% of the sawn boards were graded as clears, with smaller recoveries of cladding and structural boards. The average length of clear section was approximately 2.5 m. Mechanical testing of structural boards demonstrated that they have characteristic values sufficient to meet the requirements for the SG10 strength class. Preservative treatment achieved the H1.2 specification. Density, modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture were all higher in specimens cut from the outside of the log compared with those taken from near the pith at all heights up the stem. Conclusions: Mechanical properties and boron treatment results indicate suitability for structural applications in accordance with New Zealand's building code. 'Kawa' poplar also produced high grade recoveries suggesting potential for commercial sawn timber production, especially for structural appearance products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the need for codification of the legal acts of the Republic of Lithuania regulating construction. It is noted that the current legislation does not ensure stability and efficiency of the construction process. The construction process is subject to excessive procedural and bureaucratic requirements, and contradictions between the norms of legal acts of different levels can be found. Therefore, the issue of legislative reform is increasingly being raised in the market. Construction law has not been extensively studied in the Lithuanian legal literature so far. Therefore, we consider it necessary to analyze the legal regulation of construction and to review the need for reform on the basis of the good practice of foreign countries. This article discusses the fundamental principles and values that the regulation of construction legal relations must ensure. It assesses how the current legislation ensures the implementation of these principles. The article sets out the challenges for codification, the implementation of which would help to make the legal framework more coherent and clearer, more responsive to developments and reduce financial, human and time costs. It also identifies and analyses the most common challenges to construction regulation in different regions of the European Union. After summarizing the main objectives of the legal framework, three codification alternatives are presented, with different scope and structure of the Code. The analysis presented in the paper is based on an assessment of the functioning of the current legal system and an analysis of best practices in foreign countries. The article is based on the positions of legal scholars and practitioners expressed during scientific and practical conferences (international and national). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesian Wooden Building Code (SNI 7973-2013) has adopted the National Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction since 2013. A periodic harmonization of the building-code-designated values (i.e., reference design values and adjustment factors) with the experimental data of commercial wood species is necessary. This study aimed to compare the building code's wet service factors (CM) with the laboratory test of some commercial wood species. Since wood is weaker when its moisture content is high, the wet service factor (CM) must adjust the sawn lumber reference design values if the building serves in wet or aquatic environments. Four commercial wood species, namely pine (Pinus merkusii), agathis (Agathis dammara), red meranti (Shorea leprosula), and mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), were subjected to mechanical property tests. To calculate the empirical CM values, the mechanical properties tests were conducted on air-dry and wet wood. Instead of testing the full-sized timber, which contains the growth characteristics and defects, this study chose clear-wood specimens to resemble the boundary condition of the ceteris paribus (other things being equal). The wet (water-saturated) specimens were immersed in water for 65 days, and the test was carried out when the specimen was still immersed. The test arrangement imitated the submerged wood as the worst-case scenario of the wet environment where the construction serves, rather than green or partially immersed timber. As many as 40 specimens were tested to compare each mechanical property's wet service factor; thus, this study reported 200 specimens' laboratory test results. The empirical CM values to adjust the modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture, shear strength parallel-to-grain, tensile strength parallel-to-grain, and maximum crushing strength (CM = 0.59, 0.76, 0.65, 0.73, and 0.67, respectively) were significantly lower than SNI 7973-2013 designated values (CM = 0.9, 0.85, 0.97, 1, and 0.8, respectively). The empirical CM for the compression stress perpendicular-to-grain at the proportional limit and that at the 0.04″ deformation (CM = 0.66) were slightly lower than the designated values (CM = 0.67), although they were not significantly different. This study resulted in lower empirical CM values than the designated ones, which found that the building code lacked conservativeness. The lacked conservativeness is mainly attributed to the building code's recent choices, e.g., (1) the wet service environment basis is the green timber rather than the fully water-saturated one, and (2) the ratio of near minimum (5% lower) distribution value is chosen as the CM value rather than the average of wet timber's mechanical property divided by the air-dry one. This study proposes changing both recent choices to alternative ones to develop more safe and reliable designated CM values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper starts from the hypothesis that streetscapes with shorter façade lengths are more pleasant for pedestrians than long and monotonous façades. It analyses four case studies where short façade lengths were implemented by applying different means of regulation and gives insight into an experimental planning example from Schlieren, Switzerland. Through the investigation of these cases, different possibilities to regulate façade length were revealed and categorised. The applied comparative case study analysis and comparative approach showed that most case studies are project-based solutions, either by applying text-based regulations or by reducing parcel size. The experiment in Schlieren offered a possibility to reduce façade length to a maximum value within the standard building regulations (Rahmennutzungsplanung) and therefore make it applicable to more than just singular projects. This approach failed, since it falls into the category of form-based codes, which in the canton of Zurich are by law not allowed in all zones. The experiment showed, however, that form-based codes can act as a powerful alternative to reduce façade length if parcel size cannot be influenced and more than just one single project perimeter is to be regulated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the need for codification of the legal acts of the Republic of Lithuania regulating construction. It is noted that the current legislation does not ensure stability and efficiency of the construction process. The construction process is subject to excessive procedural and bureaucratic requirements, and contradictions between the norms of legal acts of different levels can be found. Therefore, the issue of legislative reform is increasingly being raised in the market. Construction law has not been extensively studied in the Lithuanian legal literature so far. Therefore, we consider it necessary to analyze the legal regulation of construction and to review the need for reform on the basis of the good practice of foreign countries. This article discusses the fundamental principles and values that the regulation of construction legal relations must ensure. It assesses how the current legislation ensures the implementation of these principles. The article sets out the challenges for codification, the implementation of which would help to make the legal framework more coherent and clearer, more responsive to developments and reduce financial, human and time costs. It also identifies and analyses the most common challenges to construction regulation in different regions of the European Union. After summarizing the main objectives of the legal framework, three codification alternatives are presented, with different scope and structure of the Code. The analysis presented in the paper is based on an assessment of the functioning of the current legal system and an analysis of best practices in foreign countries. The article is based on the positions of legal scholars and practitioners expressed during scientific and practical conferences (international and national).

Abstract A seismic microzonation study was conducted to refine the seismic hazard model for the city of Saguenay, Canada. The Quaternary geology underlying Saguenay shows complex glacial and post-glacial stratigraphy with a number of buried valleys filled with fluvioglacial and glaciomarine sediments. High impedance contrast between rock formations and surficial sediments is prone to seismic amplification. To evaluate their applicability, advantages and limitations in capturing the geological specificity of the study area, four site classification methods were applied: the current National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) and Eurocode 8, both mainly based on the average shear-wave velocity for the surficial sediments (V S,avg ) and for the top 30 m (V S,30 ); a method based on the fundamental site period (T 0 ); and a hybrid method based on the combination of V S,30 , T 0 and V S,avg . The study specifically aimed to evaluate the importance of the site classification parameters on the resulting microzonation maps. V S,30 is capable to present the geological and geotechnical site conditions, however, the results may be further improved by considering V s,avg in shallow and T 0 in thick layers of soil sediments as secondary parameters. The T 0 method gives also satisfactory results with T 0 showing a better correlation to V s,30 than to V s,avg . The versatile hybrid method may be challenging to apply in certain cases with its nine different site categories and parameters.

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New Zealand building codes are often amended to ensure a resilient built environment. The changes in the building code have unintentionally affected the application and use of the amendments in the building code. The purpose of this study is to investigate the unintended consequences of building code amendments in New Zealand and make adequate recommendations for improvement. The view of relevant building code users in the building code regulatory system on the negative consequences of building code amendments was analyzed in this study. In total, the study examined 116 responses from a questionnaire survey to explore the understanding of building code users on the unintended impacts of building code amendments. Findings from the study showed that a high proportion of respondents strongly believed in the need to ameliorate the unintended side effects of building code amendments with an emphasis on proactive training, bureaucracy in the design approval process, shortage of technical staff, and increased code technical complexity, which demonstrated the usefulness of the research. Based on the findings from the study, it is evident that providing satisfactory technical guidelines and reducing regulatory deficiencies among the building code authorities will help to reduce the negative impacts of building code amendments in New Zealand. The study concludes by stressing the significant impacts of unintended consequences of amending the building code and emphasized the importance of informing policy regulators on the need to improve the identified consequences of building code amendments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the intensity of the 2018 Camp Fire, many structures survived in heavily burned areas. Logistic regressions were run to determine which structural and parcel characteristics predicted structure survival using two data sets. The first, CAL FIRE's Damage Inspections (DINS) dataset, included 14 518 destroyed and 622 partially damaged structures. The second, combining information from the DINS and Defensible Space (DINS+DSPACE) databases, had many more attributes and was better balanced between destroyed (n = 728) and surviving (n = 676) structures, but was much smaller. Several approaches were compared for filtering out records with null values. Results were largely consistent with previously literature, finding that structural hardness factors (e.g. double-paned windows, enclosed eaves, ignition-resistant roofs and siding, no vents, etc.) are important in determining structure survival. Newer structures, built after California's recent (2005 and 2007) fire safe building code updates, were more likely to survive, as were homes with higher improvement values. Mobile homes were far more likely to be destroyed. The role of fuel mitigation around structures was less conclusive; defensible space clearance had only a weak association with structure survival, although DINS+DSPACE results suggested a slight reduction in risk due to removing leaves and needles from gutters/roofs and keeping surrounding dead grass mowed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]