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The Dutch lowlands may be subject to salinization, through saline upward seepage and increased salt concentrations in the surface water, which may affect agriculture and nature areas with floating fens. A simple approach was proposed to estimate root zone salinization in areas with fresh water lenses that float on upward seeping saline groundwater, based on analytical solutions and approximations, which could be used for prioritization. The hydrology of floating fens was investigated and important processes and parameters were identified, which could be used to estimate root zone exposure to salinity. The flow processes are mostly controlled by the root mat geometry, which determines which part of the root mat floats within the surface water. A greenhouse experiment showed that salinity may affect the growth of some plant species from floating fens, which implies that salinization may affect species composition in these nature areas.

Two varieties of lentil were grown in tanks filled with clay, and were irrigated with waters containing three different levels of salinity. Salinity affected the germination and survival of the seedlings; the pre-dawn leaf-water potential and maximum osmotic adjustment; the development of leaf area, dry matter and number of flowers, and, finally, the yield. Lentil has a high water-use efficiency, about 2 kg m −3 under non-saline conditions, much higher than legumes such as broadbean and soybean. The crop, however, is much more salt sensitive and can only be grown on non-saline soils. At an EC e of 2 dS/m, the limit between non-saline and slightly saline soils, the yield reduction is about 20% and at an EC e of 3 dS/m it is 90–100%. The salt tolerance classification, made after a greenhouse experiment with nutritive solutions, was not confirmed by the experiments reported here.

Recent trends and future projections suggest that the need to produce more food and fibre for the world’ s expanding population will lead to an increase in the use of marginal-quality water and land resources (Bouwer, 2000; Gupta and Abrol, 2000; Wild, 2003). This is particularly relevant to less-developed, arid and semi-arid countries, in which problems of soil and water quality degradation are common (Qadir and Oster, 2004). The aim, therefore, should be to increase yield per unit of land rather than the area cultivated. More efforts are needed to improve productivity as more lands are becoming degraded. It is estimated that about 15% of the total land area of the world has been degraded by soil erosion and physical and chemical degradation, including soil salinization (Wild, 2003). The main sources of soil salinity and sodicity development are groundwater and irrigation water. In discharge areas of the landscape, water exits from groundwater to the soil surface bringing the salts dissolved in it. The driving force for upward movement of water and salts is evaporation from the soil plus plant transpiration. Salt accumulation is high when the water table depth is less than a threshold. However, this threshold depth may vary depending on soil hydraulic properties and climatic conditions. Groundwater associated salinity and sodicity affects around 350 X 104km2in the world (Szabolcs, 1989). In this thesis, the focus is to quantify and understand the salinity and sodicity dynamics, and the feedback on dynamics in groundwater dependent agro-ecosystems. First we have considered the impact of salt coming from groundwater on capillary fluxes and on the root zone water and salt dynamics. Groundwater can be a source of both water and salts in semi-arid areas, and therefore capillary pressure induced upward water flow may cause root zone salinization. To identify which conditions result in hazardous salt concentrations in the root zone, we combined the mass balance equations for salt and water, further assuming a Poisson-distributed daily rainfall and brackish groundwater quality. For the water fluxes (leaching, capillary upflow, and evapotranspiration), we account for osmotic effects of the dissolved salt mass using Van‘t Hoff’s law. Root zone salinity depends on salt transport via capillary flux and on evapotranspiration, which concentrates salt in the root zone. Both a wet climate and shallow groundwater lead to wetter root zone conditions, which in combination with periodic rainfall enhances salt removal by leaching. For wet climates, root zone salinity (concentrations) increases as groundwater is more shallow (larger groundwater influence). For dry climates, salinity increases as groundwater is deeper due to a drier root zone and less leaching. For intermediate climates, opposing effects can push the salt balance in either way. Root zone salinity increases almost linearly with groundwater salinity. With a simple analytical approximation, maximum concentrations can be related with the mean capillary flow rate, leaching rate, water saturation and groundwater salinity, for different soils, climates and groundwater depths. A Soil sodicity (quantified by ESP) model based on the soil salinity model (as discussed above) has been developed. For sodicity calculations, we have used the Gapon equation favored in salinity research. The simulation results show that soil salinity and sodicity development in groundwater driven agro-ecosystems play a major role in soil structure degradation. To identify which conditions can make soil sodic, we have modeled the coupled water, salt, and cation balances. The root zone salinity Cand sodicity ESPgradually change to their long term average values. These long term average values are independent of the cation exchange capacity CEC. The rate of change depends inversely on the size of the root zone reservoir, i.e., on root zone thickness for C, and additionally on CEC, for ESP.Soil type can have a large effect on both the rate of approach of the long term steady state salinity and sodicity, and on the long term levels, as it affects the incoming and out-going water and chemical fluxes. Considering two possible sources of salts, i.e., groundwater and irrigation water (here represented by rainfall), the long term salt concentration Cof the root zone corresponds well with a flux weighted average of infiltrating and upflowing salt mass divided by the average water drainage. In full analogy, the long term ESPcan be approximated very well for different groundwater depths and climates. A more refined analytical approximation, based on the analytical solution of the water balance of Vervoort and Van der Zee(2008), leads to a quite good approximation of long term salinity and sodicity, for different soils, groundwater depths, and climates. Modeling is an efficient tool to investigate water and solute movement in groundwater driven agro-ecosystems. However, in most available models (SWAP,MODFLOW/MT3D) continuing degradation of soil hydraulic properties as a result of rising Na+concentrations is ignored. Disregarding the soil hydraulic degradation due to sodicity level in some cases makes modeling water and solute movement within the soil profile questionable. We have translated the effects of soil salinity and sodicity into reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity to quantify the feedback effects of reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity on root zone fluxes, salinity, and sodicity under different groundwater depths and climates of Oenpelli and Tennant Creek Airport located in the North Territory of Australia. The reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity due to salinity and sodicity (Ks(C,ESP))has been calculated by using the procedure developed by McNeal(1968). The significant feedback effects of Ks(C,ESP) on salt concentration and soil ESPdepend on many important parameters like groundwater depth, leaf area index, weather seasonality and non-seasonality, and soil type. Out of these important parameters, weather seasonality is the main driver that can develop significant feedback effects of Ks(C,ESP) onsalt concentration and soil ESP. Furthermore, Ks(C,ESP) although decreasing the capillary flux, leaching flux, and evapotranspiration, it increases the magnitude of runoff. Also when Ks(C,ESP)affects both capillary and leaching flux under seasonal rainfall, the feedback effects are significant compared to the partial feedback (Ks(C,ESP)affects only leaching flux, but not capillary flux). In the second theme of this thesis, we have focused on optimizing irrigation water between two farms under water scarcity and salinity regimes. In arid and semi-arid regions, irrigation water is scarce and often saline. To reduce negative effects on crop yields, the irrigated amounts must include water for leaching and therefore exceed evapotranspiration. The leachate (drainage) water returns to water sources such as rivers or groundwater aquifers and increases their level of salinity and the leaching requirement for irrigation water of any sequential user. We develop a sequential (upstream-downstream) model of irrigation that predicts crop yields and water consumption and tracks the water flow and level of salinity along a river dependent on irrigation management decisions. The model incorporates an agro-physical model of plant response to environmental conditions including feedbacks. For a system with limited water resources, the model examines the impacts of water scarcity, salinity and inefficient application on yields for specific crop, soil, and climate conditions. As a general pattern we find that, as salinity level and technical inefficiency increase, the system benefits when upstream farms use less water than is available to them, to provide downstream farms with more and better quality water. We compute the marginal value of water, i.e. the price water that would command on a market, for different levels of water scarcity, salinity and levels of water loss. In summary this thesis aims to understand theoretically how soil salinity and sodicity develop under different climates, groundwater depths, soil types, root zone thicknesses, and different groundwater salinities. The developed salinity sodicity model can be applied in potential salt affected areas to predict the long term salinity, sodicity trends. Furthermore, quantification of feedback effects of reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks(C,ESP)) on root zone fluxes, salinity, and sodicity guide us towards better management of soil, vegetation, and irrigation/groundwater.

Recent trends and future projections suggest that the need to produce more food and fibre for the world’ s expanding population will lead to an increase in the use of marginal-quality water and land resources (Bouwer, 2000; Gupta and Abrol, 2000; Wild, 2003). This is particularly relevant to less-developed, arid and semi-arid countries, in which problems of soil and water quality degradation are common (Qadir and Oster, 2004). The aim, therefore, should be to increase yield per unit of land rather than the area cultivated. More efforts are needed to improve productivity as more lands are becoming degraded. It is estimated that about 15% of the total land area of the world has been degraded by soil erosion and physical and chemical degradation, including soil salinization (Wild, 2003). The main sources of soil salinity and sodicity development are groundwater and irrigation water. In discharge areas of the landscape, water exits from groundwater to the soil surface bringing the salts dissolved in it. The driving force for upward movement of water and salts is evaporation from the soil plus plant transpiration. Salt accumulation is high when the water table depth is less than a threshold. However, this threshold depth may vary depending on soil hydraulic properties and climatic conditions. Groundwater associated salinity and sodicity affects around 350 X 104km2in the world (Szabolcs, 1989). In this thesis, the focus is to quantify and understand the salinity and sodicity dynamics, and the feedback on dynamics in groundwater dependent agro-ecosystems. First we have considered the impact of salt coming from groundwater on capillary fluxes and on the root zone water and salt dynamics. Groundwater can be a source of both water and salts in semi-arid areas, and therefore capillary pressure induced upward water flow may cause root zone salinization. To identify which conditions result in hazardous salt concentrations in the root zone, we combined the mass balance equations for salt and water, further assuming a Poisson-distributed daily rainfall and brackish groundwater quality. For the water fluxes (leaching, capillary upflow, and evapotranspiration), we account for osmotic effects of the dissolved salt mass using Van‘t Hoff’s law. Root zone salinity depends on salt transport via capillary flux and on evapotranspiration, which concentrates salt in the root zone. Both a wet climate and shallow groundwater lead to wetter root zone conditions, which in combination with periodic rainfall enhances salt removal by leaching. For wet climates, root zone salinity (concentrations) increases as groundwater is more shallow (larger groundwater influence). For dry climates, salinity increases as groundwater is deeper due to a drier root zone and less leaching. For intermediate climates, opposing effects can push the salt balance in either way. Root zone salinity increases almost linearly with groundwater salinity. With a simple analytical approximation, maximum concentrations can be related with the mean capillary flow rate, leaching rate, water saturation and groundwater salinity, for different soils, climates and groundwater depths. A Soil sodicity (quantified by ESP) model based on the soil salinity model (as discussed above) has been developed. For sodicity calculations, we have used the Gapon equation favored in salinity research. The simulation results show that soil salinity and sodicity development in groundwater driven agro-ecosystems play a major role in soil structure degradation. To identify which conditions can make soil sodic, we have modeled the coupled water, salt, and cation balances. The root zone salinity Cand sodicity ESPgradually change to their long term average values. These long term average values are independent of the cation exchange capacity CEC. The rate of change depends inversely on the size of the root zone reservoir, i.e., on root zone thickness for C, and additionally on CEC, for ESP.Soil type can have a large effect on both the rate of approach of the long term steady state salinity and sodicity, and on the long term levels, as it affects the incoming and out-going water and chemical fluxes. Considering two possible sources of salts, i.e., groundwater and irrigation water (here represented by rainfall), the long term salt concentration Cof the root zone corresponds well with a flux weighted average of infiltrating and upflowing salt mass divided by the average water drainage. In full analogy, the long term ESPcan be approximated very well for different groundwater depths and climates. A more refined analytical approximation, based on the analytical solution of the water balance of Vervoort and Van der Zee(2008), leads to a quite good approximation of long term salinity and sodicity, for different soils, groundwater depths, and climates. Modeling is an efficient tool to investigate water and solute movement in groundwater driven agro-ecosystems. However, in most available models (SWAP,MODFLOW/MT3D) continuing degradation of soil hydraulic properties as a result of rising Na+concentrations is ignored. Disregarding the soil hydraulic degradation due to sodicity level in some cases makes modeling water and solute movement within the soil profile questionable. We have translated the effects of soil salinity and sodicity into reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity to quantify the feedback effects of reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity on root zone fluxes, salinity, and sodicity under different groundwater depths and climates of Oenpelli and Tennant Creek Airport located in the North Territory of Australia. The reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity due to salinity and sodicity (Ks(C,ESP))has been calculated by using the procedure developed by McNeal(1968). The significant feedback effects of Ks(C,ESP) on salt concentration and soil ESPdepend on many important parameters like groundwater depth, leaf area index, weather seasonality and non-seasonality, and soil type. Out of these important parameters, weather seasonality is the main driver that can develop significant feedback effects of Ks(C,ESP) onsalt concentration and soil ESP. Furthermore, Ks(C,ESP) although decreasing the capillary flux, leaching flux, and evapotranspiration, it increases the magnitude of runoff. Also when Ks(C,ESP)affects both capillary and leaching flux under seasonal rainfall, the feedback effects are significant compared to the partial feedback (Ks(C,ESP)affects only leaching flux, but not capillary flux). In the second theme of this thesis, we have focused on optimizing irrigation water between two farms under water scarcity and salinity regimes. In arid and semi-arid regions, irrigation water is scarce and often saline. To reduce negative effects on crop yields, the irrigated amounts must include water for leaching and therefore exceed evapotranspiration. The leachate (drainage) water returns to water sources such as rivers or groundwater aquifers and increases their level of salinity and the leaching requirement for irrigation water of any sequential user. We develop a sequential (upstream-downstream) model of irrigation that predicts crop yields and water consumption and tracks the water flow and level of salinity along a river dependent on irrigation management decisions. The model incorporates an agro-physical model of plant response to environmental conditions including feedbacks. For a system with limited water resources, the model examines the impacts of water scarcity, salinity and inefficient application on yields for specific crop, soil, and climate conditions. As a general pattern we find that, as salinity level and technical inefficiency increase, the system benefits when upstream farms use less water than is available to them, to provide downstream farms with more and better quality water. We compute the marginal value of water, i.e. the price water that would command on a market, for different levels of water scarcity, salinity and levels of water loss. In summary this thesis aims to understand theoretically how soil salinity and sodicity develop under different climates, groundwater depths, soil types, root zone thicknesses, and different groundwater salinities. The developed salinity sodicity model can be applied in potential salt affected areas to predict the long term salinity, sodicity trends. Furthermore, quantification of feedback effects of reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks(C,ESP)) on root zone fluxes, salinity, and sodicity guide us towards better management of soil, vegetation, and irrigation/groundwater.

Encyclopedia on Water resources development and management in arid and semi-arid regions of the Arab world, Vol. 8, Abu Zeid, M., Hamdy, A. (Eds.); The observations of a long-term experiment on the use of saline water were used to compare the crop tolerance to salinity. Salinity affected significantly yield, evapotranspiration, pre-dawn leaf water potential and stomatal conductance. The higher the salinity, the lower the yield, evapotranspiration, pre-dawn leaf water potential and stomatal resistance. The crop classification, based on soil salinity, corresponds with the classification of Maas and Hoffman: sugarbeet and durum wheat as salt tolerant, broadbean, maize, potato, sunflower and tomato as moderately salt sensitive. The difference with respect to soybean, classified as moderately salt sensitive instead of moderately salt tolerant can be ascribed to difference in variety. Weather conditions affected strongly the salt tolerance of broadbean. The water stress day index was also used for salt tolerance classification. According to this method, maize, sunflower and potato were included in the same salt tolerant group as sugarbeet and durum wheat. The previous classification of maize and sunflower as moderately sensitive is caused by the fact that these crops are grown during a period of higher evaporative demand than when sugarbeet and durum wheat are grown. The change of potato from moderately sensitive to salt tolerant may be ascribed to its shallow root system.

Encyclopedia on Water resources development and management in arid and semi-arid regions of the Arab world, vol. 8, Abu Zeid, M., Hamdy, A. (Eds.); The publication is a synthesis of previous publications on the results of a long-term lysimeter experiment. From 1989 to 1998, the experimental variables were soil salinity and soil type, from 1999 onwards, soil salinity and crop variety. The plant was studied during the whole growing period by measuring the saline stress and analyzing its effect on leaf area and dry matter development and on crop yield. Salinity affected the pre-dawn leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, evapotranspiration, leaf area and yield. The following criteria were used for crop salt tolerance classification: soil salinity, evapotranspiration deficit, water stress day index. The classification according to soil salinity distinguished the salt tolerant group of sugar beet and wheat, the moderately salt sensitive group comprising broadbean, maize, potato, soybean, sunflower and tomato, and the salt sensitive group of chickpea and lentil. The results for the salt tolerant and the moderately salt sensitive groups correspond with the classification of Maas and Hoffman, excepted for soybean.The evapotranspiration deficit criterion was used, because for certain crops the relation between yield and evapotranspiration remains the same in case of drought and salinity. This criterion, however, did not appear useful for salt tolerance classification. The water stress day index, based on the pre-dawn leaf water potential, distinguished a tolerant group, comprising sugar beet, wheat, maize, sunflower and potato, and a sensitive group, comprising tomato, soybean, broadbean, chickpea and lentil. The classification corresponds with a difference in water use efficiency. The tolerant crops show a more or less constant water use efficiency. The sensitive crops show a decrease of the water use efficiency with increasing salinity, as their yield decreases stronger than the evapotranspiration. No correlation could be found between osmotic adjustment, leaf area and yield reduction. As the flowering period is a sensitive period for grain and fruit formation and the sensitive crops are all of indeterminate flowering, their longer flowering period could be a cause of their greater sensitivity. The tolerant group according to water stress day index can be divided according to soil salinity in a salt tolerant group of sugar beet and wheat and a moderately sensitive group, comprising maize, sunflower and potato. The difference in classification can be attributed to the difference in evaporative demand during the growing period. The sensitive group according to water stress day index can be divided according to soil salinity in a moderately sensitive group, comprising tomato, soybean and broadbean, and a salt sensitive group of chickpea and lentil. The difference in classification can be attributed to the greater salt sensitivity of the symbiosis between rhizobia and grain legume in the case of chickpea and lentil.

The hypothesis was tested that the avoidance of acid subsoil by the velvet bean Mucuna pruriens is based on a mechanism acting on the whole root system rather than on individual roots. In a split-root experiment with circulating nutrient solution the growth of plants with Al-containing (+/+) or Al-free (0/0) solution on both sides of the root system was compared with that of plants which had a choice (0/+). Two levels of Al (110 and 185 muM) were tested at two levels of Ca (50 and 1 250 muM). In the 185 muM Al treatment the concentration of monomeric Al varied between 53 muM, directly after refreshing the solution, and 5 muM at harvest time. An external Al concentration of 110 muM had no effect on shoot and root dry weight, while 185 muM Al applied to both sides of the root system (+/+) increased root dry weight and reduced shoot dry weight and shoot/root ratio, compared with the 0/0 control. Application of 185 muM Al to half of the roots, led to a significant shift in root growth in favour of the control side; this response is described here as Al avoidance. On the basis of total root length, root dry weight and root surface area, the ratio of 0/+ roots was 3.1, 2.8 and 2.4, respectively. Al avoidance at 185 muM Al was confirmed in another experiment, in which root response was measured to a local P source, supplied in a third compartment containing only KH2PO4. A significant increase in root length and dry weight in this compartment was observed, when other roots of the same plant were growing in the presence of Al. This result indicates that Al avoidance by Mucuna roots is related to P preference.

The objective of the RAMSOIL project is to provide scientific guidelines for EU wide parameter harmonization concerning Risk Assessment Methodologies for soil threats. This report focuses specifically on the soil threat salinity.

The objective of the RAMSOIL project is to provide scientific guidelines for EU wide parameter harmonization concerning Risk Assessment Methodologies for soil threats. This report focuses specifically on the soil threat salinity.

Salt-affected soils could produce useful forages when irrigated with saline drainage water. To assess the productive potential and sustainability of using drainage water for forage production, a saline-sodic site (32.4 ha) in California's San Joaquin Valley was characterized for soil quality. The objectives were (1) to spatially characterize initial soil physicochemical properties relevant to maintaining soil quality on an arid zone soil and (2) to characterize soil quality relationships and spatial variability. An initial mobile electromagnetic (EM) induction survey was conducted in 1999, with bulk soil electrical conductivity (ECa) readings taken at 384 geo-referenced locations, followed by an intensive mobile fixed-array survey with a total of 7288 geo-referenced ECa readings. Using the EM data and a spatial statistics program (ESAP v2.0), 40 sites were selected that reflected the spatial heterogeneity of the ECa measurements for the study area. At these sites, soil-core samples were taken at 0.3-m intervals to a depth of 1.2 m. Duplicate samples were taken at eight sites to study the local-scale variability of soil properties. Soil-core samples were analyzed for a variety of physical and chemical properties related to the soil quality of arid zone soils. Soils were found to be highly spatially heterogeneous. For composite soil-core samples taken to a depth of 1.2 m, ECe (electrical conductivity of the saturation extract) varied from 12.8 to 36.6 dS m−1, SAR from 28.8 to 88.8, and clay content from 2.5% to 48.3%. B and Mo concentrations varied from 11.5 to 32.2 mg l−1 and 476.8 to 1959.6 μg l−1, respectively. CaCO3, NO3− in the saturation extract, exchangeable Ca2+, Se, and As consistently had the highest coefficients of variation (CV) while pHe, ρb, and Ca2+ in the saturation extract consistently had the lowest CVs at all depths. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to spatially partition the local- and global-scale variability. Local-scale variability was greatest for pHe. Laboratory measurements of saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) were very low (0.0000846–0.0456 cm h−1), whereas field measurements were considerably higher (0.49–1.79 cm h−1). Based on the Cl− data, the leaching fraction (LF) for the entire study area was estimated to be 17%. Soil quality was reflected in yield and chemical analysis of forage. Forage Mo contents determined from newly established Bermuda grass varied from 1 to 5 mg kg−1 on a dry matter basis, and Cu/Mo ratios averaged 3.3, while forage yield in the establishment year declined with ECe, and failed to grow above ECe levels of approximately 22 dS m−1. The initial soil quality assessment of the research site indicated that the sustainability of drainage water reuse at this location would depend upon maintaining a sufficient LF with careful consideration and management of salinity, boron, molybdenum, and sodium levels.

During the Indo-China war an estimated 200,000 ha of Vietnamese mangrove forests were destroyed by chemical warfare. Since the war clearance for aquaculture and population pressure caused further deforestation, particularly in the Mekong delta. Mangrove reforestation is desired. At the state farm at Thanh Phu a combined mangrove - shrimp system has been applied for about ten years

During the Indo-China war an estimated 200,000 ha of Vietnamese mangrove forests were destroyed by chemical warfare. Since the war clearance for aquaculture and population pressure caused further deforestation, particularly in the Mekong delta. Mangrove reforestation is desired. At the state farm at Thanh Phu a combined mangrove - shrimp system has been applied for about ten years

Encyclopedia on Water resources development and management in arid and semi-arid regions of the Arab world, Vol. 8, Abu Zeid, M., Hamdy, A. (Eds.); This publication is a complement to a previous publication on salt tolerance classification, using the observations of a long-term experiment on the use of saline water. Three classification methods were compared, based, respectively, on the electrical conductivity of the saturated paste extract, the relative evapotranspiration deficit and the water stress day index. Among the eight crops grown during the experiment, broadbean, soybean and tomato were clearly distinguished by the methods based on the relative evapotranspiration deficit and the water stress day index as more sensitive then durum wheat, maize, potato, sugar beet and sunflower. Their greater sensitivity may be explained by the salt sensitivity of rhizobium bacteria affecting the nitrogen supply, by the degree of osmotic adjustment or by the prolongation of the flowering period.

The available amount of fresh water for agriculture, and specifically for irrigation, is decreasing all over the world. The quality of irrigation water is deteriorating, and saline/sodic waters are increasingly used in many arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Salinization is closely associated with the process of desertification.Sustainable land management practices are urgently needed to preserve the production potential of agricultural land while safeguarding environmental quality. In cracking soils sustainable management should take into account the occurrence of bypass flow and the influence that land use may have on soil structure and bypass flow phenomena.Measurement of vertical and horizontal shrinkage in confined soil cores was found to be suitable for determining the Soil Shrinkage Characteristic Curve (SSCC) and for incorporating shrinkage in the soil hydraulic parameters/functions determined on confined undisturbed soil samples. An optimization procedure based on multi-step outflow experiments with inverse modelling was developed for determining the soil hydraulic characteristics (HC). The need for accounting for structural porosity and shrinkage processes was recognized on the basis of hydraulic conductivity values determined by the suction crust infiltrometer method and of the SSCC determined on confined soil cores.Analysis of the response of clay soils to ESP values up to 15, showed that the concept of critical threshold needs reconsideration, because increasing soil degradation upon increasing ESP appeared to be a continuum. A major hazard of deterioration of structural and hydraulic properties was recognized even at low ESP values (ESP

The available amount of fresh water for agriculture, and specifically for irrigation, is decreasing all over the world. The quality of irrigation water is deteriorating, and saline/sodic waters are increasingly used in many arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Salinization is closely associated with the process of desertification.Sustainable land management practices are urgently needed to preserve the production potential of agricultural land while safeguarding environmental quality. In cracking soils sustainable management should take into account the occurrence of bypass flow and the influence that land use may have on soil structure and bypass flow phenomena.Measurement of vertical and horizontal shrinkage in confined soil cores was found to be suitable for determining the Soil Shrinkage Characteristic Curve (SSCC) and for incorporating shrinkage in the soil hydraulic parameters/functions determined on confined undisturbed soil samples. An optimization procedure based on multi-step outflow experiments with inverse modelling was developed for determining the soil hydraulic characteristics (HC). The need for accounting for structural porosity and shrinkage processes was recognized on the basis of hydraulic conductivity values determined by the suction crust infiltrometer method and of the SSCC determined on confined soil cores.Analysis of the response of clay soils to ESP values up to 15, showed that the concept of critical threshold needs reconsideration, because increasing soil degradation upon increasing ESP appeared to be a continuum. A major hazard of deterioration of structural and hydraulic properties was recognized even at low ESP values (ESP

An integrated approach is developed to assess a priori the effects of irrigation management interventions on soil salinity, sodicity and transpiration. The approach is tested for a 75,000 ha irrigation system in Pakistan, where canal and groundwater are used conjunctively. The main hypothesis is that by reallocating good quality canal water, the use of poor quality groundwater can be restricted, thus combating salinity and sodicity and mitigating their effects on crops. The study has three components. Firstly, interventions in canal water deliveries to tertiary units are analyzed using an unsteady state hydraulic model, based on the St. Venant equations, and linked with a regulation module, which captures the operational decisions of the irrigation agency. By changing the operational rules at the main canal, and by redimensioning the outlets in secondary canals, the water can be distributed equitably to tertiary units or delivered to those units that require it for salinity control. Secondly, the impact of irrigation on salinity, sodicity and transpiration is assessed for farmers' fields, using a combined soil water flow and solute transport model, based on Richard's equation and the convection-dispersion equation, and a regression equation, based on the irrigation quality and soil texture. A curvilinear relationship with a decreasing tangent was found between the irrigation quantity and soil salinity. Increases in the EC of the irrigation water result in a parallel curve with higher salinity levels. Adapting the irrigation quantity and quality to the existing soil types and depth to groundwater table can, therefore, reduce salinity and sodicity, thus avoiding soil degradation, which already occurs at an ESP of 4%. Thirdly, both components are combined with a parallel, socio-economic study, where farmers' decisions related to the crop portfolio and acquisition/application of water, were captured in Linear Programming models. The individual models of both studies are interfaced to develop a tool, capable of quantifying the effect of irrigation management interventions. For a secondary canal serving 14,000 ha, it is shown that the area threatened by sodicity is reduced by 40% by reallocating canal water, without affecting the agricultural production. The results of the developed tool should not be taken as accurate predictions, as there are likely to be unforeseen events due to the complexity of irrigation systems. Instead, the approach should be evaluated for its effectiveness in supporting actors' decisions in irrigation system management, by enhancing their understanding of the effects of interventions on salinity, sodicity and agricultural production. The application of the approach, in two case studies, shows that it allows the investigation of a wide range of policy and management interventions, and captures adequately the complexity of an irrigation system, thus providing indications about its transferability. However, the tools should be applied as part of an integrated concept, which includes phases of diagnosis, identification of relevant processes and parameters, and discussions with actors.; Une approche intégrée est développée pour évaluer l'impact d'interventions dans la gestion de l'irrigation sur la salinité des sols, la sodicité et la transpiration. L'approche est appliqué à un système irrigué de 75,000 ha au Pakistan, caractérisé par une utilisation conjointe des eaux douces de canal et eaux souterraines de faible qualité, dans l'hypothèse que la reallocation de l'eau de canal contribue à minimiser l'utilisation des eaux souterraines, ainsi diminuant la salinité et la sodicité, et leurs effets sur les cultures. L'étude présente trois axes de recherche: (1) Une analyse de la gestion du système d'irrigation par un modèle hydraulique en régime transitoire, basé sur les équations de St. Venant, lié à un module prenant en compte les décisions opérationnelles de l'agence d'irrigation. La distribution de l'eau actuelle peut être améliorée en adoptant des règles opérationnelles alternatives pour le canal principal et en changeant les dimensions des prises d'eau tertiaires. Ainsi, une distribution équitable de l'eau ou une redistribution de l'eau à des prises tertiaires spécifiques pour le contrôle de la salinité peut être atteint. (2) Une analyse de l'effet des pratiques d'irrigation sur la salinité, la sodicité et la transpiration par un modèle de transfert hydrique et de solutés, basé sur les équations de Richards et l'équation de convection-dispersion, et par une équation entre le risque de sodisation et la qualité de l'irrigation et la texture du sol. Il est montré que la quantité et la qualité de l'eau d'irrigation influencent considérablement la salinité et la sodicité. La gestion de l'irrigation est donc un instrument important dans la lutte contre ces phénomènes. (3) Dans une étude économique parallèle, les processus de prise de décision des paysans concernant les choix de cultures, et l'obtention et la distribution de l'eau ont été formalisés dans des modèles LP.

An integrated approach is developed to assess a priori the effects of irrigation management interventions on soil salinity, sodicity and transpiration. The approach is tested for a 75,000 ha irrigation system in Pakistan, where canal and groundwater are used conjunctively. The main hypothesis is that by reallocating good quality canal water, the use of poor quality groundwater can be restricted, thus combating salinity and sodicity and mitigating their effects on crops. The study has three components. Firstly, interventions in canal water deliveries to tertiary units are analyzed using an unsteady state hydraulic model, based on the St. Venant equations, and linked with a regulation module, which captures the operational decisions of the irrigation agency. By changing the operational rules at the main canal, and by redimensioning the outlets in secondary canals, the water can be distributed equitably to tertiary units or delivered to those units that require it for salinity control. Secondly, the impact of irrigation on salinity, sodicity and transpiration is assessed for farmers' fields, using a combined soil water flow and solute transport model, based on Richard's equation and the convection-dispersion equation, and a regression equation, based on the irrigation quality and soil texture. A curvilinear relationship with a decreasing tangent was found between the irrigation quantity and sod salinity. Increases in the EC of the irrigation water result in a parallel curve with higher salinity levels. Adapting the irrigation quantity and quality to the existing soil types and depth to groundwater table can, therefore, reduce salinity and sodicity, thus 'avoiding soil degradation, which already occurs at an ESP of 4%. Thirdly, both components are combined with a parallel, socio-economic study, where farmers' decisions related to the crop portfolio and acquisition/application of water, were captured in Linear Programming models. The individual models of both studies are interfaced to develop a tool, capable of quantifying the effect of irrigation management interventions. For a secondary canal serving 14,000 ha, it is shown that the area threatened by sodicity is reduced by 40% by reallocating canal water, without affecting the agricultural production. The results of the developed tool should not be taken as accurate predictions, as there are likely to be unforeseen events due to the complexity of irrigation systems. Instead, the approach should be evaluated for its effectiveness in supporting actors' decisions in irrigation system management, by enhancing their understanding of the effects of interventions on salinity, sodicity and agricultural production. The application of the approach, in two case studies, shows that it allows the investigation of a wide range of policy and management interventions, and captures adequately the complexity of an irrigation system, thus providing indications about its transferability. However, the tools should be applied as part of an integrated concept, which includes phases of diagnosis, identification of relevant processes and parameters, and discussions with actors.

Twelve genotypes of sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) differing in Al sensitivity were grown in an acid soil (with additions of lime or MgSO 4 ) and in nutrient solutions (with or without Al at constant pH) for periods between 14 and 35 days. The objective was the identification of the factors controlling dry matter yield of sorghum under different growth conditions. In both media Al was the major constraint, restricting growth in two independent ways: (1) by inducing Mg deficiency and (2) via damaging the roots ( i.e. by giving them a stubby and discolorated appearance and by reducing their specific root length, m g -1dry root). The sensitivities of the genotypes against Al-induced Mg deficiency and Al-induced root damage were not correlated. At moderate acidity (pH around 4.8), Mg deficiency dominantly limited growth whilst at a higher acidity (pH ~4.2) root damage overruled Mg deficiency in its negative effect on growth. At pH 4.8, addition of Mg improved growth by reducing the degree of Mg deficiency. At pH 4.2, Mg improved growth mainly by preventing the roots from Al- induced damage.Several external factors modified the AI sensitivity of the genotypes by strengthening or weakening the negative effects of Al on Mg nutrition and root development. At pH 4.2, Ca and NH 4 both counteracted AI-induced root damage but aggravated Al-induced Mg deficiency. The contrary was true for NO 3 . When the concentration of soluble Al was kept approximately constant at 15μM, both Al-induced root damage and Mg deficiency were aggravated by acidity in the range pH 3.9-4.8. Aluminium toxicity in sorghum grown in nutrient solution was independent of P deficiency, although an increased P supply partly eliminated Al phytotoxicity.The results stress the importance of both Al and Mg ions and their interactions in determining growth response of sorghum and other cereals to acid soils.

The hypothesis was tested that the avoidance of acid subsoil by the velvet bean Mucuna pruriens is based on a mechanism acting on the whole root system rather than on individual roots. In a split-root experiment with circulating nutrient solution the growth of plants with Al-containing (+/+) or Al-free (0/0) solution on both sides of the root system was compared with that of plants which had a choice (0/+). Two levels of Al (110 and 185 μM) were tested at two levels of Ca (50 and 1250 μM). In the 185 μM Al treatment the concentration of monomeric Al varied between 53 μM, directly after refreshing the solution, and 5 μM at harvest time. An external Al concentration of 110 μM had no effect on shoot and root dry weight, while 185 μM Al applied to both sides of the root system (+/+) increased root dry weight and reduced shoot dry weight and shoot/root ratio, compared with the 0/0 control. Application of 185 μM Al to half of the roots, ied to a significant shift in root growth in favour of the control side; this response is described here as Al avoidance. On the basis of total root length, root dry weight and root surface area, the ratio of 0/+ roots was 3.1, 2.8 and 2.4, respectively. Al avoidance at 185 μM Al was confirmed in another experiment, in which root response was measured to a local P source, supplied in a third compartment containing only KH2PO4. A significant increase in root length and dry weight in this compartment was observed, when other roots of the same plant were growing in the presence of Al. This result indicates that Al avoidance by Mucuna roots is related to P preference.

In dit artikel wordt voor het jaar 1983 een schatting gemaakt van de, door verzilting veroorzaakte, opbrengstverliezen voor de tuinbouw en wordt de daaruit voortvloeiende schade voor de gehele Nederlandse economie globaal berekend