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Empirical data are essential to assess the outcomes of management decisions in the context of adaptive management. We used flyway‐level population indices of a declining game bird to assess population changes after introducing hunting management measures as part of the European Union (EU)‐wide Adaptive Harvest Management mechanism (AHMM). In one flyway, a full hunting ban led to the start of population recovery; numbers increased by 25% in 2 years and the 10‐year population trend improved from “moderate decline” to “stable.” In the other flyway, harvest was only reduced (allegedly by 60% although statistics from key countries were incomplete), and numbers continued to fall (−15% decline). Our study shows positive results of the leading AHMM for a landbird in Europe and provides empirical evidence of the speed of population response and the timeframe needed for change to occur and to be detected. It showcases the successful application of policy mechanisms underpinned by science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Natura 2000 (N2K) protected area (PA) network is a crucial tool to limit biodiversity loss in Europe. Despite covering 18% of the European Union's (EU) land area, its effectiveness at conserving biodiversity across taxa and biogeographic regions remains uncertain. Testing this effectiveness is, however, difficult because it requires considering the nonrandom location of PAs, and many possible confounding factors. We used propensity score matching and accounted for the confounding effects of biogeographic regions, terrain ruggedness, and land cover to assess the effectiveness of N2K PAs on the distribution of 1769 species of conservation priority in the EU's Birds and Habitats Directives, including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, arthropods, fishes, mollusks, and vascular and nonvascular plants. We compared alpha, beta, and gamma diversity between matched selections of protected and unprotected areas across EU's biogeographic regions with generalized linear models, generalized mixed models, and nonparametric tests for paired samples, respectively, for each taxonomic group and for the entire set of species. PAs in N2K hosted significantly more priority species than unprotected land, but this difference was not consistent across biogeographic regions or taxa. Total alpha diversity and alpha diversity of amphibians, arthropods, birds, mammals, and vascular plants were significantly higher inside PAs than outside, except in the Boreal biogeographical region. Beta diversity was in general significantly higher inside N2K PAs than outside. Similarly, gamma diversity had the highest values inside PAs, with some exceptions in Boreal and Atlantic regions. The planned expansion of the N2K network, as dictated by the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, should therefore target areas in the southern part of the Boreal region where species diversity of amphibians, arthropods, birds, mammals, and vascular plants is high and species are currently underrepresented in N2K. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This is the fourth comprehensive assessment of the population status of all wild bird species in Europe. It identifies Species of European Conservation Concern (SPECs) so that action can be taken to improve their status. Species are categorised according to their global extinction risk, the size and trend of their European population and range, and Europe's global responsibility for them. Of the 546 species assessed, 207 (38%) are SPECs: 74 (14%) of global concern (SPEC 1); 32 (6%) of European concern and concentrated in Europe (SPEC 2); and 101 (18%) of European concern but not concentrated in Europe (SPEC 3). The proportion of SPECs has remained similar (38–43%) across all four assessments since 1994, but the number of SPEC 1 species of global concern has trebled. The 44 species assessed as Non-SPECs in the third assessment (2017) but as SPECs here include multiple waders, raptors and passerines that breed in arctic, boreal or alpine regions, highlighting the growing importance of northern Europe and mountain ecosystems for bird conservation. Conversely, the 62 species assessed as SPECs in 2017 but as Non-SPECs here include various large waterbirds and raptors that are recovering due to conservation action. Since 1994, the number of specially protected species (listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive) qualifying as SPECs has fallen by 33%, while the number of huntable (Annex II) species qualifying as SPECs has risen by 56%. The broad patterns identified previously remain evident: 100 species have been classified as SPECs in all four assessments, including numerous farmland and steppe birds, ducks, waders, raptors, seabirds and long-distance migrants. Many of their populations are heavily depleted or continue to decline and/or contract in range. Europe still holds 3.4–5.4 billion breeding birds, but more action to halt and reverse losses is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The Natura 2000 network, the pillar of biodiversity conservation in Europe, still shows some knowledge gaps after almost 30 years since its implementation. As birds are a taxonomic group that is underrepresented in the literature related to Natura 2000 compared to their importance in the EU Directives, this review investigated the characteristics of the scientific research dedicated to birds in relation to Natura 2000. This review focused on 169 peer-reviewed articles covering a period of 25 years (1995–2019). Most studies were set within single Natura 2000 site or regions within countries, and concerned terrestrial habitats, particularly wetlands. The terrestrial Mediterranean biogeographical region and marine Atlantic region had the greatest number of publications, while Spain, Italy, and France were the countries with the highest number of reviewed articles. The number of publications was correlated to Natura 2000 coverage at both country and biogeographical region level. Bird species were studied mainly at a community or single-species level and most publications studied distribution and occurrence of the bird species of interest, while very few assessed the conservation status of the species. Only a few articles set within Natura 2000 sites addressed the issues of habitat suitability for birds or the effectiveness of conservation efforts. Both Annex I and non-Annex I bird species were examined in the literature, with most species having decreasing population trends at the European scale. Future research on bird conservation and Natura 2000 should focus on marine ecosystems as well as habitats that have received less attention despite their important role in a changing future (alpine and urban types). Moreover, future studies should encompass larger spatial scales and those species for which status and trends are still not thoroughly investigated. Finally, it would be important to enhance research efforts on the conservation status and effectiveness in relation to the network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Birds Directive (2009/147/EC) states that migratory game birds are not hunted "during their return to their rearing grounds". It follows that for each huntable species, Member States shall assess the 10-day period (TDP) in which the pre-nuptial migration starts. For birds wintering in Europe, the onset of northward movements cannot be easily defined. In wintering areas, individuals with different migration patterns may coexist, and some migrants may fly northward while a relevant fraction of the population remains stationary. In this regard, one challenging case is represented by the song thrush Turdus philomelos, a short-distance migrant passerine intensively hunted across southern Europe. We used hunting bag data (n = 839,027) gathered in Liguria (NW Italy) during 6 consecutive hunting seasons (2006/2007–2011/2012) to test whether the second TDP of January actually corresponds to the beginning of northward movements, as previously determined based on ringing-recovery data. The spatial and temporal variation of hunting bag data was coherent with the migration pattern already described and confirmed the onset of return movements in early January. The analysis of hunting bag seasonality suggests that the increase in January harvesting is not due to wintering displacements induced by cold spells, but to regular movements that are predictable in time and direction, typical of migrating birds. Our analysis proves that hunting statistics, when collected with standardised protocols and checked to avoid bias due to variations in hunting efforts, can be used to describe the phenology of migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Habitat Directive of European Union lists Costal Lagoons (habitat code 1150*) among priority habitats because they are in danger of disappearance. Natural ecosystems may recover from anthropogenic perturbations; however, the recovery can follow natural restoration or it can be redirected through ecological restoration by anthropogenic intervention. Accordingly, by collecting the available theoretical indications for restoration of estuarine and coastal areas, a methodological approach was detailed andit can be summarised into five issues: (i) Environmental context from which it began; (ii) Desired state to be achieved; (iii) Policies and socio-economic context; (iv) Typology of recovery and/or improvement of habitats and ecosystems; and (v) Methods for monitoring the impact of the project. The project strategy, management and measures of LIFE Lagoon Refresh were also presented and discussed, as a case study for the implementation of the multidisciplinary approach for restoration ecology in transitional waters. The project takes place in the northern Venice Lagoon (Italy), started in 2017 and it lasts 5 years. In the Venice Lagoon, since the 20th century, strong reductions of the typical salinity gradient of buffer areas between lagoon and mainland, and of reedbed extensions have occurred due to historic human interventions, with negative consequences on coastal lagoon habitats. To improve the conservation status of habitats and biodiversity of the area, the LIFE Lagoon Refresh project included several conservative actions, which are (i) the diversion of a freshwater flow from the Sile River into the lagoon; (ii) the restoration of intertidal morphology, through biodegradable structures; (iii) the reed and aquatic angiosperm transplantations with the involvement of local fishermen and hunters, and (iv) the reduction of hunting and fishing pressures in the intervention area. To achieve the restoration of the lagoon environment, the strategy of the project covered a combination of different aspects and tools, such as planning activities, through the involvement of local Institutions and communities; stakeholder’s involvement to increase awareness of environment conservation and socioeconomic value improvement; an ecological engineering approach; numerical models as supporting tool for planning and managing of conservation actions; environmental monitoring performed before and after the conservation actions.

The agricultural and forestry use of land does not only mark large parts of the European Union, but also a significant share of land within the European ecological network Natura 2000. Member States, therefore, try to exempt as far as possible these land uses from the protection regime of Natura 2000-sites. However, at the same time, Member States latest reports on habitats and wild species of Community importance indicate that, in particular, the intensification of agriculture and forestry in recent decades has made it more difficult to improve conservation statuses or even worsened them. Hence, the aim of this article is to examine in detail the extent to which the protection regime of Article 6(2 and 3) Habitats Directive is applicable to land-use in agriculture and forestry. In this context, of particular relevance is the question of when the use of land in agriculture and forestry or individual management measures within and near Natura 2000-sites are projects for which an appropriate assessment is necessary before implementation; and which, in the case that significant adverse effects to a site cannot be ruled out, are permitted only under the reasons for exemption given in Article 6(4) Habitats Directive. The analysis includes the case law of the European Court of Justice, as well as decisions of the German Federal Constitutional Court and the German Federal Administrative Court. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity conservation often requires a landscape perspective. When establishing the Natura 2000 (N2k) network, the effectiveness of the sites and the influence of the surrounding landscapes for species of interest was often disregarded. We analyzed the effectiveness of N2k sites in Sweden for three forest bird species of conservation interest in the European boreal landscapes: lesser spotted woodpecker (LSW), Siberian jay (SJ) and hazel grouse (HG). Our objectives were to: 1) quantify effective suitable habitat area in N2k sites with and without consideration of the adjoining landscapes; 2) examine effective habitat area within N2k sites along the north-south vegetation gradient 3) analyze functionality of N2k sites and assess how forests outside the sites affect habitat suitability inside N2k. GIS-based habitat suitability index models were applied to calculate the amount of effective habitat within and outside N2k sites. N2k sites contributed with 10% (HG), 13% (SJ) and 51% (LSW) suitable habitat identified in Sweden. Functionality of forest environments as habitat was higher inside N2k sites for LSW within all vegetation zones, and for SJ in the Alpine and Middle Boreal zones; for HG habitat outside the sites was more functional in all zones accept Alpine and Middle Boreal. The majority of N2k sites were of quite small size (

Abstract Background Cyprus is recognised as a hotspot for illegal bird trapping in the Mediterranean basin. A consumer demand for the Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) is driving the use of non-selective trapping methods, resulting in the indiscriminate killing of millions of migratory birds. Efforts to tackle the issue have so far been characterised mostly by a top-down approach, focusing on legislation and enforcement. However, trapping levels are not decreasing and conflict between stakeholder groups is intensifying. Methods To understand why efforts to stop illegal bird trapping have not been effective, we used semi-structured interviews to interview 18 local bird trappers and nine representatives from the pertinent environmental non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the governmental agencies responsible for enforcing the legislation. Results We found distinct differences between the views of the local trapping community and the environmental NGOs, particularly on why trapping is occurring and its impact on the avifauna. This disparity has contributed to misrepresentations of both sides and a high degree of conflict, which is potentially proving counterproductive to conservation interventions. In addition, it appears that trappers are a heterogeneous group, likely driven by various motivations besides profit. Conclusion We argue that stakeholders interested in reducing illegal bird trapping need to develop anti-poaching strategies that aim at minimising the disparity in the views, and subsequently the conflict, acknowledging also that trappers are not a homogenous group, as often treated.

There has long been a tension between environmental regulation and the European Common Fisheries Policy (CFP), which has been addressed over time through progressive reform of the CFP. It is now recognised that Member States may comply with their obligations under EU nature conservation law by taking unilateral non-discriminatory measures within their territorial seas to protect the marine environment from threats posed by fishing. Nevertheless, fundamental uncertainties remain when it comes to the application of these obligations to offshore waters. This article explores the options available to coastal states in this context and the weaknesses of the procedures introduced to the reformed CFP in 2013. It is argued that compliance with nature conservation law in the context of fisheries is not discretionary and that in the absence of measures agreed at the EU level, Member States must comply with their obligations under the Habitats Directive in their capacity as a flag state. Finally, the article addresses the implications of Brexit for the protection of European Marine Sites in UK waters, suggesting that Brexit offers opportunities to strengthen the protection of marine ecosystems by making future access arrangements for foreign fishing vessels conditional upon compliance with nature conservation laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Maximizing the area under biodiversity‐related conservation measures is a main target of the European Union (EU) Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. We analyzed whether agrienvironmental schemes (AES) within EU common agricultural policy, special protected areas for birds (SPAs), and Annex I designation within EU Birds Directive had an effect on bird population changes using monitoring data from 39 farmland bird species from 1981 to 2012 at EU scale. Populations of resident and short‐distance migrants were larger with increasing SPAs and AES coverage, while Annex I species had higher population growth rates with increasing SPAs, indicating that SPAs may contribute to the protection of mainly target species and species spending most of their life cycle in the EU. Because farmland birds are in decline and the negative relationship of agricultural intensification with their population growth rates was evident during the implementation of AES and SPAs, EU policies seem to generally attenuate the declines of farmland bird populations, but not to reverse them.

According to the European Union's most recent biodiversity assessment, many of its species are still threatened by human activities. To address biodiversity loss, the EU has adopted a series of legislation, which aim at protecting important habitats and species. In addition, as part of its most recent biodiversity strategy, the EU has set an ambitious conservation target, to halt biodiversity loss within the EU by the year 2020. While this is a laudable goal, paradoxically it may not be relevant to many of EU's species. This is because EU's conservation efforts are taxonomically biased, focusing mostly on the species listed in its legislation—mainly the annexes of the Birds and Habitats Directives. The annexes, though, over-represent vertebrates, especially birds. The taxonomic bias is also evident in the allocation of EU's conservation budget through the LIFE Programme—its main conservation funding instrument. Since the inception of the programme in 1992, the EU has funded more than 800 projects that targeted species. Half of those projects focused on birds while, for instance, only 7% of them targeted invertebrates or plants. This, despite the fact that according to the European Red Lists there are more endangered invertebrates and plants within the EU than birds or mammals. The apparent taxonomic biases raise concerns regarding the conservation fate of the species belonging to taxonomically neglected groups, many of which are threatened. It is unlikely that the EU will succeed in truly halting the loss of its biodiversity if these taxonomic biases are not addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This article investigates whether Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) –which promotes the integrated planning and management of seas and oceans– can play a role in creating increased integration between the EU's renewable energy policy and the potentially conflicting rules on the protection of habitats, species and water. The article focuses on innovative ocean energy (tidal stream, wave and salinity gradient energy). It can be said that there is a possible lack of integration between the Renewable Energy Directive and the EU rules on the protection of habitats, species and water: the Habitats Directive, the Birds Directive, the Water Framework Directive and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. The role that MSP could play in solving this is assessed with regard to the following two legal issues that reflect the said lack of integration: 1) while there are derogation clauses, there is no obligation for Member States to apply these clauses and to undertake a balancing act between ocean energy, on the one hand, and the protection of habitats, species and water, on the other; 2) even if these clauses are applied, it remains unclear how much weight Member States should attach to ocean energy under a subsequent balancing act. The concept of Maritime Spatial Planning in theory is very suitable for guaranteeing that the interests of both renewable energy policy and environmental policy are duly taken into account in licensing procedures and management measures. The contribution that MSP can make towards increased integration is, however, strongly dependent on the way MSP is interpreted on the Member State level. This is illustrated by a discussion of the differences in the current MSP approaches in Scotland and the Netherlands. This article concludes that Maritime Spatial Planning may –if certain conditions are fulfilled– be a suitable way to create a necessity to balance the EU's habitats, species and water protection rules with (ocean) renewable energy projects, on different levels of governance. Nevertheless, it also concludes that MSP alone cannot guarantee a balancing act that represents the goals of the Renewable Energy Directive and those of the aforementioned environmental directives in an equal manner. This article proposes to link MSP to detailed renewable energy plans per Member State in order to solve this issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Climate change is one of the strongest biodiversity threats. Worse still, the impact of multiple anthropic stressors on species dynamics could complicate adaptation to temperature increase. International conservation policies aim to protect ecosystems against anthropic pressures, but their ability to facilitate adaptation to climate change has yet to be assessed. Using wetland bird monitoring surveys, we evaluated the differences at the country scale of community adjustment to temperature increase of wintering waterbird communities (145 species) according to the implementation of the two main western Palearctic international conservation policies (Bern Convention and Birds Directive) in the Mediterranean basin (2786 sites, 22 countries) over a 22-year period. We showed that thermic community composition increases over time in countries which have enforced conservation policies. We found that strictly protected species under the Birds Directive and the Bern Convention contributed more to this community adjustment than the not strictly protected species. The mechanism results from a population increase in protected warm-dwelling species but not from a decline in cold-dwelling species. This study supports the ability of international conservation policies to mitigate the effect of climate change on animal communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, intensive forestry has led to habitat degradation and fragmentation of the forest landscape. Taking Sweden as an example, this development is contradictory to international commitments, EU obligations, and to the fulfillment of the Parliament's environmental quality objective "Living Forests", which according to Naturvårdsverket (The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency) will not be achieved in 2020 as stipulated. One important reason for the implementation deficit is the fragmented forestry management. In a forest landscape, felling and other measures are conducted at different times on separate forest stands (often relatively small units) by different operators. Consequently, the authorities take case by case decisions on felling restrictions for conservation purposes. In contrast, conservation biology research indicates a need for a broad geographical and strategical approach in order to, in good time, select the most appropriate habitats for conservation and to provide for a functioning connectivity between different habitats. In line with the EU Commission, we argue that landscape forestry planning could be a useful instrument to achieve ecological functionality in a large area. Landscape planning may also contribute to the fulfilment of Sweden's climate and energy policy, by indicating forest areas with insignificant conservation values, where intensive forestry may be performed for biomass production etc. Forest owners should be involved in the planning and would, under certain circumstances, be entitled to compensation. As state resources for providing compensation are scarce, an alternative could be to introduce a tax-fund system within the forestry sector. Such a system may open for voluntary agreements between forest owners for the protection of habitats within a large area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Despite advances in conservation efforts within Europe during recent decades, assessments highlight a need for adequate financing mechanisms to support the Natura 2000 network, the centrepiece of the EU's Biodiversity Strategy. Besides the need for greater investment (currently only covering a fifth of the estimated cost of the network), better planning for this investment could help better achieve conservation goals. We demonstrate a method that could be used to identify priority Natura 2000 sites, and species therein, that could guide investment in the future. We first used the lists of key species associated with each Natura 2000 site to map the distribution of all priority species covered by the Birds and Habitats Directives. We then used Marxan software to prioritise allocation of conservation funds among all Natura 2000 sites, while trying to mimic the observed conservation effort implemented under the LIFE programme, the main financial tool of the EU's Biodiversity Strategy, in the period 1992–2013. Some Natura 2000 sites show exceptional value, holding species that either do not, or only very rarely, occur elsewhere in the network. These priority sites were concentrated mainly on islands and in the south western, eastern and northern extremes of Europe's mainland, thus reflecting patterns in species richness and endemism. We found a poor relationship between the priorities identified here and the way funds had been distributed in previous LIFE‐Nature programmes. Policy implications. We propose that prioritisation exercises like the one shown here could be used to inform a top‐down EU regulation mechanism by providing lists of site and species priorities that better reflect European conservation needs. These recommendations, performed at continental scale, could then help guide LIFE project proposals from the Member States and fill the current gap in the coverage of priority species. This top‐down control mechanism could be integrated in the current system of budget distribution, rather than replacing it completely, to enhance the efficiency of conservation investment in the EU and achievement of continental goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natura 2000 is a network of protected areas for the conservation of ecological diversity and habitats in the European Union. The involvement of private and public actors in the implementation and management of the Natura 2000 sites is a pillar for the success of the network. The quality of participatory process is linked to the relational social capital (relationships among stakeholders and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them). This paper investigates the changes in relational social capital after the participatory process developed in drafting the Natura 2000 Management Programme (2015–2020) in Slovenia. Such changes were analysed through two main factors: level of trust in other stakeholders; and, conflicts between stakeholders. The results show an increase in the level of trust in public administrations and a simultaneous decrease in the level of trust in other stakeholders. The majority of respondents highlight the presence of four types of conflicts: conflicts due to restrictions to human activities; conflicts determined by an increase of bureaucratic procedures; conflicts caused by a not fully accepted definition of institutional roles; and, conflicts due to a lack of complete information about Natura 2000 requirements. Studies on the role of social capital in natural resources management could improve the quality of participatory process, by increasing mutual trust and by reducing conflicts between stakeholders. Future studies should focus on the role of social capital in managing natural resources in different socio-economic and cultural contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birds are among the most important organisms for indicating the state of environmental health and their population changes may be thus informative for assessments of country-level conservation tools. One such tool applied in the European Union (EU) is the Birds Directive which (together with general protection of all bird species) lists a number of species under its Annex I and these species enjoy specific protection conditions. Although some previous studies found indications of the efficiency of the Annex I in delivering benefits for the listed species, the assessments where either confined to the so called old member states (i.e. countries entered EU before 2004) or did not include countries outside EU as a suitable control group. Therefore, it remains unclear whether this tool is efficient also in the new EU-member states (i.e. countries entered EU from 2004 onwards). For this purpose, we used publicly available information source and assembled a dataset providing country-level population trends of 252 European breeding bird species estimated for the time period 2001–2012 in 33 European countries containing old member states, new member states and non-member states. We predicted that if efficient, then listing the species under Annex I would result in significantly positive population trends of the listed species in EU countries irrespective to the time of their enterance, while no such pattern should be observed in non-EU countries. We tested this prediction using linear mixed effect models controlling for the effects of 11 species’ traits reflecting the influence of other factors (e.g. climate change, land cover change, proximity to range edges) on trends and including the species and country indentifiers as random effects. We found that the listing under the Annex I had significantly positive effect on bird trends in both old and new member states, whereas no such effect was observed in the non-member states. Although the positive influence of listing was larger in the old and than in the new member states, the difference was not statistically significant. Our results imply that the Annex I of the Birds Directive is an important tool for bird conservation in Europe and that its positive influence on bird populations is detectable even in the new EU members entering EU relatively recently. As birds are often used as indicators also for other groups of organisms, these results suggest that not only birds may benefit from EU’s conservation legislation but comprehensive assessments are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current paper is the first published study on the avifauna from the Leaota Mountains, an area located in the north-east side of Argeș County (Romania). A part of the results of the researches performed here in 2016 referring to the species from the Annex I of the Birds Directive are showed. The obtained data were compared to similar data obtained in Europe and Romania, particularly following the distribution according to the type of habitat occupied, the age of the forest, in the case of the forestry species, and the sea level altitude at which the species were observed. It has been found that the most of them preferred the 91V0 habitat, mature forests and the altitude range of 1,000-1,499 m, resulting in the need for urgent protection of the natural forest ecosystems. Several considerations have been made about hydrographic zoning, too, highlighting the basins of the main rivers or streams where significant concentrations of protected species have been found, and also in terms of their density and population. Some information about the migration of diurnal rapacious birds through the area was provided as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natura 2000 network covers over 18 percent of the land area in the European Union. All proposals for development affecting these sites must be previously assessed for their implications for the site's conservation objectives. In cases where it cannot be ascertained that there is no adverse effect on the integrity of a Natura 2000 site, the proposal for development can now only be approved within the scope of a derogation assessment pursuant to Article 6(4) of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC1 (HD). This article explores the requirements for an approval for derogation. In addition to the decisions of the European Court of Justice (ECJ)2 and the European Commission guidelines on this issue, this article focuses, in particular, on the comprehensive German Federal Administrative Court (BVerwG)3 decisions on this matter, which has had to assess a substantially greater number of cases to date, and provides a critical discussion on this in relation to the conservation aims of the Habitats Directive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union and its Member States have been creating a network of protected areas for habitats and species since 1979. In 2017, this included over 27,500 Natura 2000 sites, a combined area of over 18 percent of the land surface in the EU and around 395,000 km2 of marine territory. According to Article 6(3) of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC1 (HD), any projects and plans within these sites or in their vicinity require an appropriate assessment to ensure that they will not have a significant impact on the integrity of Natura 2000 site. The project or plan is to be rejected by the national authorities if this cannot be excluded without remaining reasonable scientific doubts. This article explores the procedural steps and the requirements that must be examined, which are now covered by comprehensive European Court of Justice (ECJ)2 case law. Numerous questions that are relevant in practice, however, have only been considered by national courts to date. These will be introduced in this article based on the decisions of the German Federal Administrative Court (BVerwG)3 and will be the focus of a critical discussion. Questions on the range covered by the term project and on determining significant impacts will be entered into in greater detail in two further articles, given the scope of the aspects to be examined and explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cyprus is recognised as a hotspot for illegal bird trapping in the Mediterranean basin. A consumer demand for the Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) is driving the use of non-selective trapping methods, resulting in the indiscriminate killing of millions of migratory birds. Efforts to tackle the issue have so far been characterised mostly by a top-down approach, focusing on legislation and enforcement. However, trapping levels are not decreasing and conflict between stakeholder groups is intensifying. Methods: To understand why efforts to stop illegal bird trapping have not been effective, we used semi-structured interviews to interview 18 local bird trappers and nine representatives from the pertinent environmental non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the governmental agencies responsible for enforcing the legislation. Results: We found distinct differences between the views of the local trapping community and the environmental NGOs, particularly on why trapping is occurring and its impact on the avifauna. This disparity has contributed to misrepresentations of both sides and a high degree of conflict, which is potentially proving counterproductive to conservation interventions. In addition, it appears that trappers are a heterogeneous group, likely driven by various motivations besides profit. Conclusion: We argue that stakeholders interested in reducing illegal bird trapping need to develop anti-poaching strategies that aim at minimising the disparity in the views, and subsequently the conflict, acknowledging also that trappers are not a homogenous group, as often treated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Birds and Habitats Directives are the cornerstones of EU nature conservation law, aiming at the conservation of the Natura 2000 network, a network of protected sites under these directives, and the protection of species. The protection regime for these sites and species is not absolute: Member States may, under certain conditions, allow plans or projects that can have an adverse impact on nature. In this case compensatory measures can play an important role in safeguarding the Natura 2000 network and ensuring the survival of the protected species.This contribution analyses whether taking compensatory measures is always obligatory, and discusses the aim and the characteristics of compensatory measures, in relation to other kinds of measures such as mitigation measures, usual nature conservation measures, and former nature development measures, and to the assessment of the adverse impact caused by the plan or project and of the alternative solutions. The questions will be discussed in light of the contents of the legislation, the guidance and practice by the European Commission, (legal) doctrine and case law, mainly of the Court of Justice of the European Union.

The European Union (EU) committed to halt the loss of biodiversity in its 2020 Biodiversity Strategy. However, all reports show conservation efforts are falling short of their objectives and the status of biodiversity in the EU continues to decline. Here, we propose four key avenues for the next Strategy, currently under discussion, to make EU conservation efforts more effective. First, we suggest the next Biodiversity Strategy should ensure legal coverage for threatened species not listed in the EU Habitats and Birds Directives, which currently cover only 16.4% of all threatened species. Second, halting biodiversity loss requires threatened species to be adequately managed. To this end, the potential of the extant Natura 2000 should be fully released. Already designated protected areas (PAs) hold more species than currently declared as target for management, leaving an opportunity to further manage more threatened species. Third, to address dynamism associated to climate and land use change, conservation management should be expanded outside PAs, using the planned network of Green Infrastructure. Fourth, while more funding is required to properly implement the Biodiversity Strategy, the improvements we suggest can be made more cost-effective by using systematic planning approaches and better integration of conservation policy in other sectorial policies, such as the Common Agriculture Policy. While existing policy mechanisms can already be used to implement some of these recommendations, revised policies should seek better integration of conservation into other sectorial policies, as well as efficient allocation and use of funds to increase the efficiency of conservation efforts.

In protected areas managers have to achieve conservation targets while providing opportunities for outdoor recreation. This dual mandate causes conflicts in choosing between management options. Furthermore, the persistence of a protected species within the management unit often depends on how conservation areas elsewhere in the region are managed. We present an assessment procedure to guide groups of managers in aligning outdoor recreation and bird conservation targets for a regional scale protected area in the Netherlands. We used existing bird monitoring data and simulated visitor densities to statistically model the impact of outdoor recreation on bird densities. The models were used to extrapolate the local impacts for other parts of the area, but also to assess the impact on conservation targets at the regional level that were determined by the national government. The assessment shows impacts of outdoor recreation on Nightjar ( Caprimulgus europaeus ), Stonechat ( Saxicola torquata ) and Woodlark ( Lullula arborea ), reducing the regional population by up to 28 percent. The Woodlark population size was reduced below the level of the politically determined conservation target. The output of the regression models provides information that connects implications of local management to regional scale conservation targets. The spatial maps of bird densities can help in deciding where reducing visitor disturbance is expected to result in increasing bird populations, or where alternative measures, such as improving the habitat conditions, could be effective. We suggest that by using our assessment procedure collaborative decision making is facilitated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maximizing the area under biodiversity-related conservation measures is a main target of the European Union (EU) Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. We analyzed whether agrienvironmental schemes (AES) within EU common agricultural policy, special protected areas for birds (SPAs), and Annex I designation within EU Birds Directive had an effect on bird population changes using monitoring data from 39 farmland bird species from 1981 to 2012 at EU scale. Populations of resident and short-distance migrants were larger with increasing SPAs and AES coverage, while Annex I species had higher population growth rates with increasing SPAs, indicating that SPAs may contribute to the protection of mainly target species and species spending most of their life cycle in the EU. Because farmland birds are in decline and the negative relationship of agricultural intensification with their population growth rates was evident during the implementation of AES and SPAs, EU policies seem to generally attenuate the declines of farmland bird populations, but not to reverse them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union (EU) has made significant conservation efforts in the last two decades, guided by the Birds and Habitats Directives, currently under evaluation. Despite these efforts a large proportion of priority species are still in unfavorable condition and continue declining. For this reason, a thoughtful review of the implementation of conservation efforts in Europe is needed to identify potential causes behind this poor effectiveness. We compiled information on the distribution of all conservation funds under the LIFE-Nature, the main financial tool for conservation in Europe. We found that LIFE-Nature has not adequately covered continental conservation needs. The majority of funds have been directed toward nonthreatened species or regions of low conservation priority. Given the limited resources available, two key aspects are in urgent need for revision and improvement. First, the distribution of funds should be guided by continental and global conservation needs and planned at the EU scale. Second, new mechanisms are required to set conservation priorities in a dynamic fashion, rather than relying on fixed lists (i.e., the Directives' Annexes) that may rapidly become outdated. These improvements would require new mechanisms to set priorities and redistribution of conservation efforts, supported by adequate policy and a more effective top-down control on investment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interaction between environmental conservation and fisheries has never been easy. This is no less true for European Union (EU) policy in these areas. Numerous EU Member States, and the European Commission, are struggling with the paradox in EU law that emerges when EU environmental policy and EU fisheries policy overlap. On the one hand, EU Member States are required to take conservation or protection measures, if necessary, in specific areas to fulfil their duties stemming from the Habitats and Birds Directives. On the other hand, Member States are, to a great extent, deprived of their competence to fulfil these duties as soon as these measures possibly touch upon fisheries. There is an exclusive competence for the EU attached to the common fisheries policy of the EU. This article addresses this paradoxical situation by analysing the Habitats and Birds Directives on the one side, and the exclusive competence of the EU in the area of fisheries on the other. The article concludes by examining possible solutions to the paradox, hopefully constituting worthwhile contributions to an ungoing discussion. The article is a revised version of a report written on behalf of the Amsterdam International Law Clinic.

Globally, intensive forestry has led to habitat degradation and fragmentation of the forest landscape. Taking Sweden as an example, this development is contradictory to international commitments, EU obligations, and to the fulfillment of the Parliament’s environmental quality objective “Living Forests”, which according to Naturvårdsverket (The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency) will not be achieved in 2020 as stipulated. One important reason for the implementation deficit is the fragmented forestry management. In a forest landscape, felling and other measures are conducted at different times on separate forest stands (often relatively small units) by different operators. Consequently, the authorities take case by case decisions on felling restrictions for conservation purposes. In contrast, conservation biology research indicates a need for a broad geographical and strategical approach in order to, in good time, select the most appropriate habitats for conservation and to provide for a functioning connectivity between different habitats. In line with the EU Commission, we argue that landscape forestry planning could be a useful instrument to achieve ecological functionality in a large area. Landscape planning may also contribute to the fulfilment of Sweden’s climate and energy policy, by indicating forest areas with insignificant conservation values, where intensive forestry may be performed for biomass production etc. Forest owners should be involved in the planning and would, under certain circumstances, be entitled to compensation. As state resources for providing compensation are scarce, an alternative could be to introduce a tax-fund system within the forestry sector. Such a system may open for voluntary agreements between forest owners for the protection of habitats within a large area.

Protected areas classified under EU wildlife legislation have achieved real gains for biodiversity. Protected areas also safeguard the environmental conditions and functions that support diverse ecological communities. Ensuring they are properly protected and maintained in favourable condition will help build resilient populations that are better able to respond to climate change. Changes are inevitable, and will require the conservation objectives and management of protected areas to be reviewed and adapted over time, at different spatial and temporal scales for different species. Increasing their area through habitat creation will increase their resilience and provide the space to accommodate change. The EU Birds and Habitats Directives are well framed to help meet the challenges of climate change adaptation. The overall purpose of the Directives is straightforward: to maintain species and habitats at a favourable conservation status over the long term. The Directives possess a robust, dynamic framework of habitat conservation measures, including protected areas, designed to work together to deliver this overarching objective, although this potential has not yet been fully realised. Climate change adaptation will require the interpretation and implementation of the Birds and Habitats Directives to be developed, but their fundamental construction is as sound today as it was when they were adopted.

Climate change will cause further loss of biodiversity. As negative effects are already taking place, adaptive measures are required to protect biodiversity from the effects of climate change. The EU policy on climate change and biodiversity aims at improving a coherent ecological network in order to have more resilient ecosystems and to provide for connectivity outside core areas. The existing legal framework, the Birds and Habitats Directives, can enable adaptive approaches, by establishing and managing the Natura 2000 network and providing for connectivity measures. However, policy and law so far have mainly been aimed at conserving the status quo of habitats and species within core areas. The question is whether a legal requirement to protect certain species in certain places makes sense when species and even ecosystems are migrating due to climate change. Instead, efforts must be increased to protect ecosystem functions, goods and services from the negative effects of climate change, and to facilitate the ecological restoration of new areas. Even more effort is needed for the implementation of connectivity. If existing legislation proves too weak to face these challenges, a new ‘Ecosystem Framework Directive’ might provide the necessary legal impetus.

The European Union (EU) has an extensive protected area network, including Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated under the Birds Directive. Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) are sites of international significance for birds identified by BirdLife International. Here, we perform EU-wide terrestrial spatial conservation prioritizations to evaluate the coverage of IBAs by SPAs, and the coverage of bird and other vertebrate distributions by IBAs and SPAs. We then investigate the distribution of potential locations for expanding the SPA network that maximize bird species' representation, and the coverage of these locations by IBAs. On average, SPAs cover 23% of the EU-wide distribution of each bird species and 25% of the distributions of amphibians, reptiles and mammals together, while IBAs provide marginally greater coverage. Overall, 76% of terrestrial IBAs in the EU are completely or partially covered by SPAs, and 66% of the IBA network area is covered by SPAs. Our results suggest that SPA designation has been significantly informed by data on the location of IBAs. While IBAs are identified using data on particular bird species of conservation concern, they also tend to have high EU-wide representation of other vertebrates. The designation of new or expanded SPAs covering a relatively small amount of currently unprotected land (particularly in the southern EU) would substantially increase SPA coverage of bird species ranges. Our analysis provides insights on the current contribution that these sites make to conserving vertebrates across the EU, and future possibilities for efficiently expanding the network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natura 2000 (N2k) is a multinational and coordinated conservation network designated to support the long-term survival of Europe's most valuable species and habitats. It is the key conservation tool in the European Union. We reviewed 510 peer-reviewed publications (period 1998–2014) focusing on ecological aspects of N2k, with the aims of identifying key research gaps and proposing future research priorities for improved conservation success. We categorized the articles by spatial scale, biogeographical regions, taxonomic groups, habitat types, and the analytical methods used. The majority of studies were performed in single N2k sites or at the regional level within countries. The Mediterranean region had the greatest number of publications and the terrestrial Black Sea, Macaronesia, Pannonian and Steppic regions were overrepresented in relation to their total area and to the area of N2k sites that they comprised. Grasslands, freshwater and wetland habitats were overrepresented in comparison to their area within N2k. Plants were the most commonly studied taxonomic group and quantitative empirical studies dominated. Future N2k research should address knowledge gaps by directing more efforts towards: 1) the Boreal region, 2) alpine, agricultural, forest and marine habitats, and 3) underrepresented taxonomic groups such as reptiles, amphibians, lichens and fungi. For enhanced evaluation and realization of the conservation potential of N2k, more studies will need to encompass large spatial scales and utilize modelling approaches to effectively address future climate and land-use changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Applications for licences to kill buzzards in order to prevent serious damage to the viability of pheasant shoots were regarded by Natural England, the licensing authority, as sufficiently novel to require direction from the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), the government department responsible for the licensing provisions in the Wildlife & Countryside Act and their implementation in accordance with the EU Birds Directive. Defra declined to issue a specific policy for raptors and instructed Natural England to apply the general policy. The court found that Natural England had not done this but had, in effect, applied a hidden policy to refuse such applications. Natural England’s decision to refuse to grant licences was quashed on the grounds of reliance on an undisclosed policy, taking account unlawfully of public opinion, unreasonableness and failing to deal with the option of licensing live trapping of birds. Ouseley J also found that the case was covered by the Aarhus Convention because it related to an environmental matter. The fact that the case was about a refusal to grant a licence and therefore amounted to a challenge seeking to cause harm was irrelevant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Natura 2000 (N2k) is a network of protected areas, established to implement the Birds and the Habitats Directives of the European Union (EU) with the goal of conservation irrespective of national boundaries. We provide the first assessment of the whole terrestrial N2k using spatial prioritizations, and high-resolution vertebrate species distribution data. First, we quantified species' representation in the network, and compared it against outcomes of hypothetical optimal planning scenarios at the EU, member state, and biogeographical levels. Second, we examined the spatial configuration of N2k sites and same-sized hypothetical top priority sites based on the three planning scenarios. We found that N2k covered all vertebrate directive species, and the coverage was significantly better than with a random allocation of sites. We observed substantial differences in representation between taxa, followed by the fact that N2k succeeded better in covering threatened and directive species than non-directive species. The current species representation in N2k was closer to optimal allocations done at member states' or biogeographical levels than the EU-wide allocation. Furthermore, the N2k sites overlapped more with the EU-wide allocation and they were more evenly distributed across the EU compared to sites in all hypothetical optimal allocations. Finally, we found that the biogeographical scenario covered well the ranges of habitats directive species, following the biogeographical approach taken by the EU in the Habitats Directive. Our results show that despite N2k being moderately successful, there is substantial effectiveness to be gained from member state collaboration via potential expansions or complementary conservation policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International legislation forms a cornerstone of conservation, yet its efficacy is rarely quantified. We assess whether species listed on Annex I of the European Union (EU) Birds Directive, for which EU Member States are obliged to implement special conservation measures, differ systematically in their short-term (2001-2012) or long-term (1980-2012) population trends from those of non-Annex I species. In both periods, Annex I species had more positive trends than non-Annex I species, particularly in countries that joined the EU earlier. There were additional signatures of climate change and life history strategy in the trends of species in one or both periods. Within Annex I species, long-distance migrants fared significantly worse than other species, suggesting that enhanced protection on the breeding grounds alone may be insufficient for these species. We conclude that the EU's conservation legislation has had a demonstrably positive impact on target species, even during a period in which climate change has significantly affected populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]