Search

Introduction Disease and non-battle injury (DNBI) has historically been the leading casualty type among service members in warfare and a leading health problem confronting military personnel, resulting in significant loss of manpower. Studies show a significant increase in disease burden for DNBI when compared to combat-related injuries. Understanding the causes of and trends in DNBI may help guide efforts to develop preventive measures and help increase medical readiness and resiliency. However, despite its significant disease burden within the military population, DNBI remains less studied than battle injury. In this review, we aimed to evaluate the recently published literature on DNBI and to describe the characteristics of these recently published studies. Materials and Methods This systematic review is reported in the Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews database. The systematic search for published articles was conducted through July 21, 2022, in Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health, Cochrane Library, Defense Technical Information Center, Embase, and PubMed. Guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses, the investigators independently screened the reference lists on the Covidence website (covidence.org). An article was excluded if it met any of the following criteria: (1) Published not in English; (2) published before 2010; (3) data used before 2001; (4) case reports, commentaries, and editorial letters; (5) systematic reviews or narrative reviews; (6) used animal models; (7) mechanical or biomechanical studies; (8) outcome was combat injury or non-specified; (9) sample was veterans, DoD civilians, contractors, local nationals, foreign military, and others; (10) sample was U.S. Military academy; (11) sample was non-deployed; (12) bioterrorism study; (13) qualitative study. The full-text review of 2 independent investigators reached 96% overall agreement (166 of 173 articles; κ = 0.89). Disagreements were resolved by a third reviewer. Study characteristics and outcomes were extracted from each article. Risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Meta-analysis of pooled estimates of incidence rates for disease (D), non-battle injury (NBI), and combined DNBI was created using random-effects models. Results Of the 3,401 articles, 173 were included for the full review and 29 (16.8%) met all inclusion criteria. Of the 29 studies included, 21 (72.4%) were retrospective designs, 5 (17.2%) were prospective designs, and 3 (10.3%) were surveys. Across all studies, the median number of total cases reported was 1,626 (interquartile range: 619.5-10,203). The results of meta-analyses for 8 studies with reported incidence rates (per 1,000 person-years) for D (n  = 3), NBI (n  = 7), and DNBI (n  = 5) showed pooled incidence rates of 22.18 per 1,000 person-years for D, 19.86 per 1,000 person-years for NBI, and 50.97 per 1,000 person-years for combined DNBI. Among 3 studies with incidence rates for D, NBI, and battle injury, the incidence rates were 20.32 per 1,000 person-years for D, 6.88 per 1,000 person-years for NBI, and 6.83 per 1,000 person-years for battle injury. Conclusions DNBI remains the leading cause of morbidity in conflicts involving the U.S. Military over the last 20 years. More research with stronger designs and consistent measurement is needed to improve medical readiness and maintain force lethality. Level of Evidence Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, Level III. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Administration of high-dose vitamin K1 (VK1) overcomes coagulopathy and bleeding elicited by acute poisoning with long-acting anticoagulant rodenticides (LAARs). However, long-term (months) treatment is required due to long LAAR biological half-lives that may lead to poor compliance and recurrent coagulopathy. The half-lives of LAARs are extended by slow metabolism, and similar to warfarin, are thought to undergo enterohepatic recirculation. We now show that treatment with the bile acid sequestrant cholestyramine (CSA) administered concomitantly with VK1 decreases plasma LAAR levels and increases LAAR fecal excretion. Daily CSA treatment for 14 days did not reduce plasma VK1 levels, or increase prothrombin time. Collectively, these data show that CSA accelerates LAAR clearance from rabbits without adverse effects on VK1 anticoagulation, and could provide an additional therapeutic option for treatment of LAAR poisoning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax disease, is a worldwide threat to livestock, wildlife and public health. It is also considered one of the most important pathogens of bioterrorism. Rapid and reliable diagnosis and administration of antimicrobials are essential for effective anthrax treatment. In this study, we determined the in vitro susceptibilities of 40 isolates of B. anthracis isolated in Croatia over the recent two decades to 18 antimicrobials. Whole-genome sequencing was performed, and bioinformatics tools were used to determine virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance genes. Core genome-based multilocus sequence typing was used for isolate comparison and phylogenetic analysis. All isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials recommended for post-exposure prophylaxis or anthrax therapy. Susceptibility was found to all other tested antimicrobials that are an alternative for primary therapy. We found two beta-lactamase genes, but their expression is not sufficient to confer resistance. In all isolates used in this study, we found 21 virulence genes, 8 of which are responsible for toxin and capsule production. As far as phylogenetic analysis is concerned, the B. anthracis isolates from Croatia are categorised into two clades. The first is clade A, subclade Trans Eurasia, and the other is clade B, subclade B2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The peculiarities of the promotion of the narrative of Ukrainian biological weapons by Russian propaganda during the Russian-Ukrainian war are investigated. The impact of such propaganda on public opinion is deconstructed. Measures to counter such propaganda by non-state research organizations and non-state mass media are outlined. It was determined that in the modern world, propaganda turns the real world into a fictional world. As a form of communication, propaganda seeks to direct the reaction and/or behaviour of the subject. An important factor is that with the help of information that is promoted through certain technologies, an opinion that is important to the government is represented. Especially when this government is at war. And when the consumer of information receives a lot of information, he can not only understand the reality in which he is, but can also lose it. Therefore, at least two opposing points of view can form an information space, divide it and counterattack each other. As a result, confrontation between people will be established. In the war with Ukraine, Russia created a multi-level information space, in each of which Ukraine is accused of spreading Nazism, suppressing Russian speakers, spreading biological weapons, etc. A unique aspect of contemporary Russian propaganda is its creation of numerous narratives on diverse subjects, each consistently highlighting the presence of an enemy. And this is Ukraine. Undoubtedly, the goal of such a strategy is to justify a military invasion of the territory of Ukraine, and not only in 2022, but also in 2014. Propaganda narratives must also be thwarted by a multi-layered countermeasure, an important element of which is NGOs.

IntroductionIn the current climate of heightened terrorist activity, the deliberate release or threat of biological agents like viruses, bacteria, fungi, or their toxins to induce sickness or death among civilians has become a genuine possibility. The most crucial action during a bioterrorist strike is early warning. The possibility of such an occurrence in dental setting is underestimated. Methods and MaterialsSeventy five graduate students participated in the research. In a survey on zoonotic diseases, participants were asked whether they were familiar with the transmission from person to person, if the diseases caused significant morbidity and mortality, whether they were simple to produce and disseminate, and whether they posed a high risk of infection. ResultsGraph Prism was used to examine the data. A single proportion test was used to determine the “Aware Not Aware” group. The first 10 questions assessed dentists objective knowledge of bioterrorism. The importance of the last six questions was determined by their analysis of dentists’ preparedness and desire to respond to a bioterrorism associated occurrence via perceived knowledge. ConclusionGiven the real danger they may face, dentists needed to be vigilant regarding the prevention, detection, and treatment of zoonotic illnesses transmitted in their offices or as a vector while being commended for their courage in the face of adversity.

Although there has been much writing and speculation on the deliberate use of smallpox as a tool of genocide, this article documents the use of the bluff threat of spreading smallpox as a tool of power and manipulation in the early days of European trade and settlement in the Pacific Northwest. By documenting ten cases when a bluff threat was used, the article argues that it was a common strategy of Europeans when they felt threatened or thwarted. Because it was compatible with existing Indigenous beliefs about the spread of disease, it was highly credible and was occasionally used by Indigenous people to manipulate others. While Europeans in this era did not actually have the power to control smallpox, the fact that outbreaks of the disease often occurred following a threat to spread it gave credence to the threat and to today's widespread belief that some or all of the epidemics were deliberate genocide. Recognizing bluff threat bioterrorism as a tool in the newcomer's arsenal is essential to understanding how the heavily outnumbered and out-gunned newcomers were so often able to manipulate Indigenous people and then establish the settlements that eventually evolved into full scale colonial occupations of Indigenous territory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rise of technology as an industry in the modern world, new innovations come with exciting benefits and dangerous effects. Bioterrorism has historically been used as an army's strongest weapon and with this rise of technology, we have seen bionanotechnology become the new focus of this type of warfare. Bionanotechnology is the combination of nanotechnology with microbiological components, and the world is unprepared to regulate it. Existing regulations and organizations such as the Nanotechnology Task Force, Biological Weapons and Toxins Conventions, and the Department of Defense are on high alert for this developing weapon, bionanotechnology poses unprecedented risks for communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasites are ubiquitous, diverse, and have close interactions with humans and other animals. Despite this, they have not garnered significant interest from forensic scientists, and their utility as indicators in criminal investigations has been largely overlooked. To foster the development of forensic parasitology we explore the utility of parasites as forensic indicators in five broad areas: (i) wildlife trafficking and exploitation, (ii) biological attacks, (iii) sex crimes, (iv) criminal neglect of humans and other animals, and (v) indicators of movement and travel. To encourage the development and growth of forensic parasitology as a field, we lay out a four-step roadmap to increase the use and utility of parasites in criminal investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Evaluate the efficacy of sponge wipe sampling at recovering potential bacterial surrogates for Category A and B non-spore-forming bacterial bioterrorism agents from hard, nonporous surfaces. Methods A literature survey identified seven nonpathogenic bacteria as potential surrogates for selected Category A and B non-spore-forming bacterial agents. Small (2 × 4 cm) and large (35.6 × 35.6 cm) coupons made from either stainless steel, plastic, or glass, were inoculated and utilized to assess persistence and surface sampling efficiency, respectively. Three commercially available premoistened sponge wipes (3M™, Sani-Stick®, and Solar-Cult®) were evaluated. Results Mean recoveries from persistence testing indicated that three microorganisms (Yersinia ruckeri, Escherichia coli , and Serratia marcescens) demonstrated sufficient persistence across all tested material types. Sampling of large inoculated (≥107 CFU per sample) coupons resulted in mean recoveries ranging from 6.6 to 3.4 Log10 CFU per sample. Mean recoveries for the Solar-Cult®, 3M™ sponge wipes, and Sani-Sticks® across all test organisms and all material types were ≥5.7, ≥3.7, and ≥3.4 Log10 CFU per sample, respectively. Mean recoveries for glass, stainless steel, and ABS plastic across all test organisms and all sponge types were ≥3.8, ≥3.7, and ≥3.4 Log10 CFU per sample, respectively. Conclusions Recovery results suggest that sponge wipe sampling can effectively be used to recover non-spore-forming bacterial cells from hard, nonporous surfaces such as stainless steel, ABS plastic, and glass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the political history of Islam and Iran, bioterrorism was utilized as a weapon to eliminate rivals and achieve political and military objectives. This article aims to investigate the poisoning methods, uses of poison as well as measures to prevent it in the political-militarily arena of Islamic civilization. The results show the poisoning of political figures, religious and military leaders as well as changing the results of wars by the biological assassination of commanders and the poisoning of troops in military conflicts and political challenges were tactics those in power used. This research tries to examine ways of using poison as a biological weapon in major historical events of Islam and also to analyze the way of employing this method as the easiest way to eliminate military and political commanders and to change the outcomes of wars and political events to achieve political and military goals. The results additionally indicate that bioterrorism had important effects in key political and military periods in the history of Islam, contributing to changes in the fate of many events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In the current climate of heightened terrorist activity, the deliberate release or threat of biological agents like viruses, bacteria, fungi, or their toxins to induce sickness or death among civilians has become a genuine possibility. The most crucial action during a bioterrorist strike is early warning. The possibility of such an occurrence in dental setting is underestimated. Methods and Materials: Seventy five graduate students participated in the research. In a survey on zoonotic diseases, participants were asked whether they were familiar with the transmission from person to person, if the diseases caused significant morbidity and mortality, whether they were simple to produce and disseminate, and whether they posed a high risk of infection. Results: Graph Prism was used to examine the data. A single proportion test was used to determine the "Aware Not Aware" group. The first 10 questions assessed dentists objective knowledge of bioterrorism. The importance of the last six questions was determined by their analysis of dentists' preparedness and desire to respond to a bioterrorism associated occurrence via perceived knowledge. Conclusion: Given the real danger they may face, dentists needed to be vigilant regarding the prevention, detection, and treatment of zoonotic illnesses transmitted in their offices or as a vector while being commended for their courage in the face of adversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or other harmful agents to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants. A biological weapon is useful to terrorists mainly as a method of creating mass panic and disruption to a state or a country. Bioterrorism agents are classified as categories A, B, and C. Bioterrorism imposes particularly heavy demands on the nation’s public health and health care system because ultimately it will be the public health system that will be called on to mitigate and ameliorate the consequences of a bioterrorism attack. India is the second-most populous country in the world and has a diverse demography consisting of various religions, cultures, and languages. The unique nature of India’s population makes it vulnerable to bioterrorism attacks that can result in catastrophic consequences. This review article aims to focus on the challenges of bioterrorism from Indian perspective and to outline the methods on preparedness and prevention of bioterror attacks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every year, the number of potentially life-threatening pathogenic biological agents (PBAs) is rapidly growing, which are represented by viruses, bacteria, rickettsia, chlamydia, protozoa, fungi, genetically engineered constructs and modified microorganisms, prions and toxins. The use of PBAs for the purpose of destroying society, the economic resources of the country, deteriorating the quality of food and water supplies, intimidating the population, provoking internal unrest, destabilizing government, and creating economic, socio-psychological and environmental crises is nothing more than biological terrorism. The numerous international agreements, treaties and protocols that have been developed and ratified to date, limiting the production and use of weapons of mass destruction, do not guarantee the elimination of the risks of illegal acquisition and use of biologically active substances by terrorist organizations, which does not exclude the possibility of committing acts of bioterrorism. In this regard, the preservation and strengthening of administrative-legal, medical-biological, sanitary-epidemiological, veterinary and phytosanitary and other measures should form the basis of the state policy of the Russian Federation to counter the use and spread of PBAs.

Bacillus anthracis is a well-known zoonotic pathogen that can cause disease in both animals and humans. Moreover, it has a high bioterrorism potential as its lethal spores are resistant to inactivation, are easy to produce in large quantities, and are easily spread over large areas. Anthrax cases occur in different parts of the world, including most European countries. Specific areas of Croatia are long known as anthrax districts, but with sporadically reported cases over the years. Here, we present a major outbreak of animal and human anthrax in the region of Lonjsko Polje in Croatia, a region not known to have anthrax cases in the past. The outbreak started in July 2022 and lasted several months, but most human and animal cases were reported in the first month. During the outbreak, there were 17 reported human cases of cutaneous anthrax and 29 laboratory-confirmed animal cases. However, due to issues in reporting in animals and the late finding of the carcasses, which made laboratory diagnostics challenging, the actual number of animal cases was probably significantly higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Anthrax mailings bioterrorism attack in 2001 revealed the need for universal and rapid microbial forensic analyses on unknown biological evidence. However, the gold standard for bacterial identification includes culturing isolates, which is laborious. Molecular approaches for bacterial identification revolve around 16S ribosomal gene sequencing using Sanger or next generation sequencing (NGS) platforms, but these techniques are laboratory-based and can also be time-consuming. The Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) MinION sequencer can generate long read lengths that span the entire bacterial 16S rRNA gene and accurately identify the species level. This platform can be used in the field, allowing on-site evidence analysis. However, it requires higher quantities of pure DNA compared to other sequencing platforms; thus, the extraction method for bacterial DNA is critical for downstream analysis, which to date are tailored toward a priori knowledge of the species' taxonomic grouping. During an attack, the investigative team may not know what species they are handling; therefore, identifying an extraction method that can handle all bacterial groups and generate clean DNA for the MinION is useful for microbial forensic analysis. The purpose of this study was to identify a "universal" extraction method that can be coupled with ONT MinION sequencing for use in forensic situations for rapid identification. It also evaluated the cloud-based data analysis software provided by ONT, EPI2ME. No "universal" extraction method was identified as optimal for downstream MinION sequencing. However, the DNeasy PowerSoil Kit and Noda et al. Chelex-100 method gave comparable sequencing results and could be used as rapid extraction techniques. This study showed that the ONT 16S Barcoding Kit 1–24 coupled with the 16S FASTQ workflow might not be the best for use in forensic situations where species-level identification needs to be obtained, as most alignments were approximately 89% accurate. In all seven test organisms and nine extraction methods, accurate species identification was only obtained in 63% of the cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The environment has evolved into a nonkinetic domain of warfare, with chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) threats posing significant risks. Historical events like the Spanish flu, anthrax poisoning, and the COVID-19 pandemic underscore the devastation caused by CBRN elements. Technological advancements have increased the risk of nonkinetic warfare, exemplified by the 2001 anthrax poisoning in the United States. To address this, countries must bolster their capabilities and invest in research and development for prevention, preparedness, and response strategies. This article focuses on bioterrorism within environmental security, emphasizing the need for countries to utilize limited resources effectively while considering potential animal-based threats. Collaboration among Indo- Pacific nations is essential, transcending bilateral issues to collectively safeguard the environment. The article examines each country's strengths and proposes cooperative strategies. Challenges include assessing stakeholder willingness to cooperate while maintaining territorial integrity and developing population training modules. Measures to address these challenges are imperative for effective preparedness and execution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paul the Deacon's Historia Langobardorum has long underpinned histories of the First Pandemic in Italy, with the text's narrative account of a plague outbreak in Liguria, Venetia, and greater Italy typically dated to 565. The following pages examine the modern and premodern treatment of the Ligurian Plague, highlighting the problems with and debates about its date, reconsidering its murky origins in Paul's writing, and reframing it as an editorially complex account of disease. A thematic and structural analysis of Paul's text alongside those of other key western Mediterranean plague narrators—namely, Gregory of Tours and Gregory the Great—suggests this Historia Langobardorum plague passage was neither wholly original nor based on detailed accounts from northern Italy. Instead, it was a product of the geography of Paul's narrative and his wider attempt to rehabilitate the history of the Lombard conquest, resulting in an apocalyptically-tinged report of mid-sixth-century plague that is both geographically and chronologically unreliable. In calling into question popular claims about the Ligurian Plague's geography and chronology, this microstudy offers a novel method of interrogating late antique plague texts and further elucidates Paul's process as a narrator of Lombard and Italian history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the need to revise 18 U.S. Code (U.S.C.) § 175 to improve the legal framework for preventing bioterrorism. Topics discussed include the historical context of bioterrorism, particularly the 2001 anthrax attacks; the current limitations and ambiguities in the statutory language; and also mentions about proposed changes to enhance clarity and effectiveness in addressing bioterrorism threats.

The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrates how an infectious disease can cause massive casualties, destabilize governments, and garner intense media attention as countries struggle to respond effectively. Will the pandemic inspire terrorist groups to consider biological weapons, hoping to replicate these effects? This question is the latest iteration of the debate over the risk posed by bioterrorism, which is characterized by three camps: optimists, pessimists, and pragmatists. This article revisits these schools of thought in light of COVID-19 and analyzes recent developments among extremists to assess the new risk of bioterrorism. The article concludes with recommendations for policymakers to mitigate this risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The weapons of mass destruction-civil support team (WMD-CST) physician associate/assistant (PA) is an autonomous PA who balances military and civilian roles to achieve mission success and support the safety of the US public. This article by multiple WMD-CST PAs across the nation describes the WMD-CST PA profession and how traditional PA roles continue to advance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under military rule (1973–1990), Chile embarked upon several top-secret chemical and biological weapons (CBW) programmes. 'Project ANDREA' and the development of sarin is the best known, although other programmes have also been reported. However, these programmes remain poorly understood – particularly in English language sources. To resolve this, this paper draws upon local-language reporting, Cold War histories and other sources to provide insight into the histories, key personalities, and evolution of Chile's historical CBW programmes. This paper contributes to wider literature on Chile's dictatorship, but also literature on CBW-proliferation, which remains confined to a relatively small set of case studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deliberate use of biological agents as a weapon in terrorist activities is called bioterrorism. Bioterrorism, directly targets human rights, endangers global health and security and terrible threat to humanity. The purpose of this paper, using a descriptive-analytical method, is to introduce bioterrorism, definebiological weapons, and state that these weapons are considered mass destruction weapons according to their characteristics and effects on living things and the environment. Also, classification, ways to fight and legal approach to legalization of these weapons in international law have been explained. Since, one of the main concerns of authorities and international organizations is to ensure global health and security and the purpose of international law is to control and prohibit the use of such weapons. But many of the solutions offered by these organizations have not been successful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Telehealth is one of the technologies that can help us in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases caused by bioterrorism. This research aims to introduce the applications of this tool and examine its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in bioterrorist attacks. Methods: We searched in Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar from 2001 to 2021. By applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria and checking the title, abstract, and full text, we selected articles to enter the analysis. Finally, we extracted and saved data based on the Excel form. Results: A total of articles were retrieved through the search, and 15 studies remained for final analysis. Based on the Results, the multiple roles of telehealth were included in two clinical and managerial categories. Also, SWOT analysis showed that practical tools in bioterrorism have more strengths than weaknesses. Early identification of bioterrorism attacks and control of their spread is one of the significant strengths of this field. Also, one of its considerable weaknesses is the incompatibility of these systems. Conclusion: Considering the many applications of telehealth and the positive impact of this tool during bioterrorism incidents, its use is suggested by various organizations, especially the Red Crescent and military organizations. But considering the weaknesses and threats like the lack of appropriate technical, organizational, legal, and insurance infrastructure and security and confidentiality issues, it is necessary to measure to deal with these cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The peculiarities of the promotion of the narrative of Ukrainian biological weapons by Russian propaganda during the Russian-Ukrainian war are investigated. The impact of such propaganda on public opinion is deconstructed. Measures to counter such propaganda by non-state research organizations and non-state mass media are outlined. It was determined that in the modern world, propaganda turns the real world into a fictional world. As a form of communication, propaganda seeks to direct the reaction and/or behaviour of the subject. An important factor is that with the help of information that is promoted through certain technologies, an opinion that is important to the government is represented. Especially when this government is at war. And when the consumer of information receives a lot of information, he can not only understand the reality in which he is, but can also lose it. Therefore, at least two opposing points of view can form an information space, divide it and counterattack each other. As a result, confrontation between people will be established. In the war with Ukraine, Russia created a multi-level information space, in each of which Ukraine is accused of spreading Nazism, suppressing Russian speakers, spreading biological weapons, etc. A unique aspect of contemporary Russian propaganda is its creation of numerous narratives on diverse subjects, each consistently highlighting the presence of an enemy. And this is Ukraine. Undoubtedly, the goal of such a strategy is to justify a military invasion of the territory of Ukraine, and not only in 2022, but also in 2014. Propaganda narratives must also be thwarted by a multi-layered countermeasure, an important element of which is NGOs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deliberate or threatening use of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or poisonous substances prepared from living organisms to cause death or disease in humans, animals, and plants is called bioterrorism. These agents can be spread by spraying them in the air, causing infection in animals, transferring this infection to humans, or contaminating water and food sources. Defense measures, such as emergency responses to this type of terrorism, are unfamiliar and unknown. The general state of helplessness caused by the lack of complete preparation and the lack of anti-pollution strategies complicates the issue. The ability and widespread interest of civilian personnel to participate in the development of chemical and biological weapons is directly related to easy access to academic excellence around the world. Another factor is the tempting misuse of freely available electronic data and knowledge about the production of antibiotics, vaccines, and conventional weapons with their various complex details. The use of animals in laboratory research to better understand the mechanisms of disease and treatment and to overcome the limitations of clinical trials has a long history. For many viruses, laboratory diagnostic methods and reagents must be continuously modified to account for genetic variations and variants. Unlike bacterial diseases, many of which can be treated with antimicrobial drugs, there are fewer medical countermeasures to combat viral infections. Many of these pathogens are lethal or cause debilitating diseases in humans, making it ethically inappropriate to test the effectiveness of these countermeasures on human volunteers. Researchers must have a correct understanding of various animal models so that they can make the correct choice, gain a better understanding of the clinical symptoms of viral diseases, and provide possible options for treatment and vaccine development. It should be noted that decision-making when faced with a biological attack should be done away from too much fear, and this requires researchers to have prior knowledge of facing these threats. Despite all these checks and measures taken in advance, the international preparedness against these attacks is weak, which can be attributed to the lack of global plans to deal with the epidemic.

Crimean Congo Haemorrhagic Fever, a tick-borne viral disease, is an emerging transboundary disease with zoonotic implications. The disease has now started showing evidence of its presence beyond its endemic foci in Asia, Africa, Southern and Eastern Europe and Middle East. CCHF is capable of causing severe economic losses and disruption of trade opportunities. The disease spread is primarily influenced by the distribution of tick vectors, epidemiological background of the vertebrate reservoir hosts and seasonal factors. Southeast Asian countries are more vulnerable to CCHF due to the increasing population and inadequate healthcare infrastructure. In India, besides the climatic factors, anthropogenic factors and the hosting of animal trade fairs are the reasons contributing to the cases of CCHF. The clinical presentation of the disease ranges from a mild febrile illness to a severe disease resulting in vascular dysfunction and multi-organ failure. The most definitive form of diagnosis is by employing RT-PCR. Currently, there is no specific treatment protocol; however WHO recommends the use of ribavirin. No vaccines are available and therefore, the best way of prevention is by minimizing exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deliberate or threatening use of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or poisonous substances prepared from living organisms to cause death or disease in humans, animals, and plants is called bioterrorism. These agents can be spread by spraying them in the air, causing infection in animals, transferring this infection to humans, or contaminating water and food sources. Defense measures, such as emergency responses to this type of terrorism, are unfamiliar and unknown. The general state of helplessness caused by the lack of complete preparation and the lack of anti-pollution strategies complicates the issue. The ability and widespread interest of civilian personnel to participate in the development of chemical and biological weapons is directly related to easy access to academic excellence around the world. Another factor is the tempting misuse of freely available electronic data and knowledge about the production of antibiotics, vaccines, and conventional weapons with their various complex details. The use of animals in laboratory research to better understand the mechanisms of disease and treatment and to overcome the limitations of clinical trials has a long history. For many viruses, laboratory diagnostic methods and reagents must be continuously modified to account for genetic variations and variants. Unlike bacterial diseases, many of which can be treated with antimicrobial drugs, there are fewer medical countermeasures to combat viral infections. Many of these pathogens are lethal or cause debilitating diseases in humans, making it ethically inappropriate to test the effectiveness of these countermeasures on human volunteers. Researchers must have a correct understanding of various animal models so that they can make the correct choice, gain a better understanding of the clinical symptoms of viral diseases, and provide possible options for treatment and vaccine development. It should be noted that decision-making when faced with a biological attack should be done away from too much fear, and this requires researchers to have prior knowledge of facing these threats. Despite all these checks and measures taken in advance, the international preparedness against these attacks is weak, which can be attributed to the lack of global plans to deal with the epidemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study determined the status and outcomes of bioterrorism-related training programs for healthcare workers. While media-based education/training uses simulations, games, and web-based programs, evidence of their effectiveness and relevant systematic reviews remain scarce. This systematic review focused on articles published in PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, and Research Information Sharing Service between January 1, 1990 and September 17, 2023. Among 2,592 identified articles, literature quality was assessed in 12 articles. In the most articles, bioterrorism-related knowledge and problem-solving ability significantly increased following interventions. However, quality assessment results provided insufficient evidence regarding improvement in healthcare workers' preparedness to face bioterrorism after undergoing bioterrorism-related training programs. Developing easily accessible and regularly implemented bioterrorism training programs for healthcare workers could enhance their preparedness toward terrorism and provide high-quality evidence for effective bioterrorism responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study conducted within the context of COVID-19, empirically examines the historical context of bioterrorism. The objective of the study is to investigate if bioterrorism is a myth or reality, and whether COVID-19 constitutes an act of bioterrorism. Terrorism, which has its roots in political, ideological, and historical motivations, is a crime that has persisted throughout history. The study adopts a qualitative research method to analyze scholarly literature, papers released by international organizations such as the UN' WHO, and so on. The research sheds insight on the Geneva Protocol, the Biological Weapons Convention, and the Patriot Act, all of which were signed to combat bioterrorism. Terrorism is highlighted as the most critical security concern of the twenty-first century as a result of the 9/11 attacks, which have brought it to the forefront of international affairs. In the post-Cold War global political climate, non-traditional security threats providing new challenges to security architecture have been addressed in the current research, as have the mechanics of terrorism, which have grown increasingly intricate since the 9/11 disaster. The findings provide a full understanding of bioterrorism as a reality rather than a myth. The events of bioterrorism that have occurred in history are clear evidence that it is a reality. COVID-19, the act of bioterrorism, advises being prepared to counter any future act of bioterrorism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]