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U okviru stručne suradnje određena je ekotoksičnost i biorazgradljivost određenih uzoraka - aditiva.

Sve veća zabrinutost o iscrpljivanju resursa, kao i pojava sve većeg zagađenja usmjerila je mnoge znanstvenike i istraživače u posljednjih nekoliko godina na proizvodnju biokompozita. Sve veća komercijalna dostupnost polilaktidna (PLA) kao i njegova dobra svojstva, uključujući biorazgradljivost učinila su ga jednim od obećavajućih materijala. PLA biokompoziti koji sadrže anorganska punila ili ojačavala na osnovi prirodnih vlakana zauzimaju veliku pozornost zbog svoje biokompatibilnosti. Neke od prednosti korištenja prirodnih vlakana u biokompozitima su niska cijena, specifična svojstva i neabrazivna prerada. Zamjena određenog postotka biopolimera s vlaknima smanjuje cijenu materijala, a takvi bi materijali bili i potpuno biorazgradljivi. Shodno tome, istraživači su ispitivali učinkovitost PLA kompozita ojačanog prirodnim vlaknima kao alternativnog materijala za zamjenu neobnovljivih materijala na bazi nafte. The growing concern about the depletion of resources, as well as the appearance of increasing pollution, has directed many scientists and researchers in the last few years to the production of biocomposites. The increasing commercial availability of polylactide (PLA) as well as its good properties, including biodegradability, have made it one of the most promising materials. PLA biocomposites containing inorganic fillers or reinforcements based on natural fibers are attracting a lot of attention due to their biocompatibility. Some of the advantages of using natural fibers in biocomposites are low price, specific properties, and non-abrasive processing. Replacing a certain percentage of biopolymers with fibers reduces the cost of the material, and such materials would also be completely biodegradable. Accordingly, researchers investigated the effectiveness of natural fiber reinforced PLA composites as an alternative material to replace petroleum-based non-renewable materials.

V sodobni družbi je pakiranje sestavni del tehnološkega procesa proizvodnje živil. Naraščajoča količina odpadne embalaže predstavlja resen okoljski problem, zato obstaja velik interes za nadomeščanje klasičnih plastičnih materialov z biološko razgradljivimi, ki se zaradi delovanja mikroorganizmov bistveno hitreje biokemijsko transformirajo do osnovnih gradnikov, kot sta voda in ogljikov dioksid. Hitrost razgradnje je odvisna od različnih dejavnikov, kot so vrsta materiala, okoljski dejavniki (temperatura, vlaga), aktivnost mikroorganizmov in drugo. Večina biorazgradljivih materialov je proizvedena iz obnovljivih virov, ki so lahko dostopni. To so naravni polimeri (škrobi, celuloza, hitin in hitozan, različne živalske in rastlinske beljakovine), polimeri, ki so proizvedeni s polimerizacijo naravnih spojin, kot je mlečna kislina (polimlečna kislina – PLA), in iz polimerov, ki jih proizvajajo mikroorganizmi (polihidroksialkanoati - PHA). Nekatere lastnosti biorazgradljivih materialov so pozitivne (možnost oblikovanja, prosojnost, možnost kombiniranja), druge pa negativne (krhkost, slabše barierne lastnosti, občutljivost na vlago, visoka cena), kar še vedno omejuje večjo uporabo takih materialov v praksi. Intenzivno raziskovanje pa je že obrodilo sadove, saj so različne tehnološke rešitve omogočile izrazito izboljšanje mnogih lastnosti, kar bo v prihodnosti najverjetneje vplivalo na povečanje deleža biorazgradljivih materialov pri pakiranju živil. In modern society, packaging is an integral part of the technological process of food production. The growing amount of packaging waste is a serious environmental problem, which is why there is a great interest in replacing classic plastics with biodegradable materials, which are biochemically converted much faster into basic building blocks such as water and carbon dioxide by the action of microorganisms. The rate of degradation depends on various factors, such as the type of material, environmental factors (temperature, humidity), the activity of microorganisms, and others. Most biodegradable materials are made from renewable resources that are readily available. These are natural polymers (starch, cellulose, chitin and chitosan, various animal and plant proteins), polymers produced by polymerization of natural compounds such as lactic acid (polylactic acid - PLA), and polymers produced by microorganisms (polyhydroxyalkanoates - PHA). Some properties of biodegradable materials are positive (design possibilities, transparency, combinability), while others are negative (fragility, poorer barrier properties, moisture sensitivity, high price), which still limits the increased use of such materials in practice. Intensive research has already borne fruit, as various technological solutions have made it possible to significantly improve many properties, which will most likely contribute to increase the share of biodegradable materials in food packaging in the future.

Micropollutants and emerging substances pose a serious problem to environmental sustainability and remediation, due to their widespread use and applications in everyday life. This group of chemicals is diverse but with common toxic and harmful properties. Their concentration in the environment is often very low; however, due to their recalcitrant nature, they are persistent in air, water, and soil. From an engineering point of view, the challenge is not straightforward. It is difficult to remove these contaminants from complex mixtures of substances by conventional methods used in wastewater and drinking water treatment. Ozonation and ozone-based AOPs are accepted processes of degradation of resistant substances or at least enhancement of their biodegradability. The aim of this review paper is to present research trends aimed at solving problems in the research and application of ozone-based processes in the removal of micropollutants from wastewater, thus preventing leakage of harmful substances into surface water, soil, and groundwater and facilitating the reuse of wastewater. Priority substances, micropollutants and emerging pollutants, as well as processes and technologies for their transformation and elimination, are briefly specified. Results obtained by the authors in solving research projects that were aimed at eliminating selected micropollutants by ozonation and ozone-based AOPs are also presented. This review focuses on selected alkylphenols, petroleum substances, and organochlorine pesticides.

Naraščajoča uporaba antibiotikov in vse večja prisotnost farmacevtskih učinkovin v odpadnih vodah pomenijo vse resnejši okoljski problem. Ker se antibiotiki v telesu ne presnovijo popolnoma, jih večina konča v okolju, saj jih konvencionalne čistilne naprave niso zmožne popolnoma odstraniti. Poleg ljudi so pomemben vir onesnaženja tudi veterina, farmacevtska industrija, bolnišnice in raziskovalne dejavnosti. Antibiotiki se v okolju nahajajo v majhnih koncentracijah in zaradi svojega stalnega vnosa lahko negativno vplivajo tako na vodne organizme kakor tudi na ljudi. V okviru magistrskega dela sta predstavljena dva napredna oksidacijska procesa in njuna kombinacija za odstranjevanje antibiotika iz odpadnih vod. Antibiotik amoksicilin smo želeli odstraniti z ozonacijo, hidrodinamsko kavitacijo ter njuno kombinacijo. Postopke smo izvajali pri različnih pretokih ozona in različnih koncentracijah amoksicilina. Učinkovitost procesov smo spremljali z določanjem celotnega organskega ogljika (TOC) in kemijske potrebe po kisiku (KPK). Z respirometrijo aktivnega blata pa smo spremljali biorazgradljivost antibiotika. Rezultati so pokazali, da je sama ozonacija najučinkovitejši proces, saj smo dosegli največje učinkovitosti razgradnje – glede na TOC 26 % in glede na KPK 62 %. S hidrodinamsko kavitacijo nismo dosegli želenega učinka, saj so bile učinkovitosti najmanjše – glede na TOC < 1 %, glede na KPK pa 20 %. Kombinacija obeh postopkov pa je dala enake učinkovitosti kakor sam proces ozonacije. Z respirometrijo aktivnega blata smo dokazali, da neobdelan antibiotik tudi po kavitaciji ni biorazgradljiv. Le proces ozonacije in kombinaicija ozonacije ter kavitacije sta antibiotik vsaj delno razgradila in povečala njegovo biorazgradljivost. The increasing use of antibiotics and the presence of pharmaceutical residues in wastewater is becoming a serious environmental problem. Studies show that most of consumed antibiotics are not metabolized in the body. Conventional wastewater treatment plants are not able to completely remove them so they are constantly excreted into the environment. In addition to humans, an important source of antibiotics in effluents are also veterinary medicine, pharmaceutical industry, hospitals and research facilities. Antibiotics are found in low concentrations in the environment because of their continuous discharge they are a potential threat on aquatic organisms as well as humans. Within the master's thesis, two advanced oxidation processes and their combination for the removal of antibiotics from wastewater are presented. We studied ozonation, hydrodynamic cavitation and their combination. The processes were performed at different ozone flows and different concentrations of amoxicillin. The efficiency of the processes was monitored with determination of total organic carbon (TOC) and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Biodegradability of antibiotic was evaluated with respirometry of activated sludge. The results showed that ozonation itself is the most efficient process, as we achieved the highest decomposition efficiencies in terms of TOC 26 % and COD 62 %. Hydrodynamic cavitation did not achieve the preferred effect as the efficiencies were the lowest, according to the TOC < 1% and COD 20 %. The combination of both processes, however, gave the same results as the ozonation process itself. Respirometry of activated sludge proved that the untreated antibiotic is not biodegradable even after cavitation. Only the process of ozonation and the combination of ozonation and cavitation at least partially degraded the antibiotic, and increased its biodegradability.

Magistrsko delo se ukvarja s problematiko družbeno odgovornega oblikovanja v modi s poudarkom na ekološki in etični perspektivi ter perspektivi uporabnika. V zadnjih letih se je zaradi situacije v modi vloga oblikovalca močno spremenila, saj ta ni več izključno oblikovalec, ampak je postal posrednik, spodbujevalec, aktivist, podjetnik in še mnogo več. Čeprav ljudje postajajo vse bolj ozaveščeni glede dogajanja v modni in tekstilni industriji, je le malo takih, ki to znanje aktivno uporabljajo tudi v praksi. Cilj magistrskega dela je zasnovati blagovno znamko Vivre, ki jo odlikujejo 100-% biorazgradljiva oblačila, ki sestojijo iz naravnega veganskega biomateriala, ki sem ga razvila v sklopu naloge. Material bazira na osnovi naravnih polisaharidov in je del krožnega gospodarstva, saj imajo materiali reciklažne in biorazgradljive lastnosti. Material po videzu in strukturi še najbolj spominja na usnje. Tudi vsi uporabljeni oblačilni elementi (gumbi, zaponke) ter tudi vse obdelave na proizvodih blagovne znamke Vivre so izključno naravnega izvora in so biorazgradljive. V delu sem zasnovala multifunkcionalno kolekcijo oblačil in modnih dodatkov, ki inspiracijo iščejo v provokativnih kolažih angleškega družbenokritičnega umetnika Joeja Webba. Navdih za funkcionalne detajle in silhuete pa kolekcija jemlje iz vojaških uniform. Kolekcija je kot navdih ali ena od smernic za trajnostno oblikovanje, hkrati pa je kritika sodobnega spopadanja z modno krizo in odpira nova področja razmisleka za oblikovalca. Loteva se tudi čutnega oblikovanja z namenom obuditve zapostavljenih čutnih zaznav. Današnji svet je zaradi digitalizacije namreč pretežno vizualen, drugi čuti pa so prepogosto zapostavljeni. V kolekcijo dodajam še taktilne in inhalatorne zaznave, s čimer želim poudariti velik potencial oblačil tudi na ravni mentalnega zdravja in psihološkega dobrega počutja. Z izključno okulocentrično percepcijo oblačil jim namreč jemljemo veliko moč. Materialu je dodan vonj eteričnih olj, saj ta dokazano pozitivno vpliva na naše razpoloženje ter našo fizično in kognitivno predstavo. Hkrati želim z zasnovanjem koncepta »oblačilo kot objem ali prijeten dotik« izboljšati tudi uporabnikovo psihofizično počutje. This master's thesis discusses the issue of socially responsible design in the fashion industry with an emphasis on the ecological and ethical perspective as well as the user's perspective. Over the last few years, the role of the designer has changed greatly due to the situation in the fashion industry, as they are no longer just a designer, but have become a mediator, promoter, activist, entrepreneur and much more. Even though people are becoming increasingly aware of what is going on in the fashion and textile industry, only a few of them actively apply this knowledge in practice. The purpose of this master's thesis is to design Vivre, a clothing brand characterized by 100% biodegradable fabric, which is made from a natural vegan biomaterial developed by me as part of the thesis. The material is based on natural polysaccharides and is part of the circular economy because it has recyclable and biodegradable properties. The appearance and the structure of the material are most reminiscent of leather. All the included parts of clothing (buttons, buckles) as well as all the products after processing of the Vivre brand are solely of natural origin and are biodegradable. This thesis presents my multifunctional fashion collection of garments and accessories that find inspiration in the thought-provoking collages by Joe Webb, a socio-critical British artist. The collection owes its inspiration for functional details and silhouettes to military uniforms. The collection is a source of inspiration or one of the guidelines for sustainable design, while it also critiques the current conflict with the crisis in the fashion industry and reveals new areas of reflection for the designer. It also includes sensory design in order to revitalize the neglected sensory perceptions. Today's world relies primarily on visual perception due to digitalisation, while the other senses are often neglected. The perception of touch and smell is also added to the collection to emphasize clothing’s big potential on the level of mental health and psychological well-being. An exclusively oculocentric perception of clothing takes away a lot of its power. Essential oils are added to the material because it has been proven that their scent has a positive effect on our mood and our physical and cognitive performance. At the same time, I also want to improve the user's psychophysical well-being with the concept of clothing as a hug or a pleasant touch.

This research aimed to study the influence of lyocell with incorporated ZnO (CLY) for antibacterial activity and biodegradation of fiber blends composed of viscose (CV), flax (LI), and CLY. Fiber blended samples with an increased weight fraction of CLY fibers were composed, and single CLY, CV and LI fibers were also used for comparison. Antibacterial activity was determined for the Gram-negative Escherichia coli and the Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. The biodegradation of fiber blends was investigated by the soil burial test. The results show that the single CLY fibers exhibited high antimicrobial activity against both E. coli and S. aureus bacteria and that the presence of LI fibers in the blended samples did not significantly affect antibacterial activity against E. coli, but drastically decreased the antibacterial activity against S. aureus. LI fibers strongly promoted the growth of S. aureus and, consequently, impaired the antimicrobial performance of ZnO against this bacterium. The presence of CLY fibers slowed down, but did not prevent, the biodegradation process of the fiber blends, even at the highest ZnO concentration. The soil that was in contact with the fiber blended samples during their burial was not contaminated to such an extent as to affect the growth of sprouts, confirming the sustainability of the fiber blends.

Zaradi široke uporabe antibiotikov v moderni družbi so te snovi v majhnih koncentracijah prisotne tudi v okolju. To sicer ne povzroča neposrednih negativnih učinkov na organizme, prispeva pa k razširjanju odpornosti bakterij na antibiotike, kar postaja vedno bolj izrazit zdravstveni problem. Namen doktorske disertacije je bil ugotoviti, s katerim naprednim oksidacijskim postopkom in s kolikšnimi dozami oksidantov dosežemo, da antibiotiki postanejo primerni za konvencionalno biološko čiščenje. Za to je treba zmanjšati strupenost in povečati biorazgradljivost. Z uporabo oksidacije kot postopkom obdelave pred konvencionalnim biološkim čiščenjem, bi namreč lahko učinkovito omejili širjenje biološko nerazgradljivih antibiotikov v okolje. V doktorski disertaciji smo kot modelni antibiotik uporabili veterinarski slabo biorazgradljivi in okoljsko obstojni tiamulin. Za primerjavo in potrditev učinkov oksidacijskih procesov smo uporabili dva antibiotka s skrajnimi lastnostmi - biološko nerazgradljivi fluorokinolon levofloksacin ter biorazgradljivi betalaktam amoksicilin. Preizkusili smo tri napredne tehnike oksidacije, in sicer ozon, ozon v kombinaciji z vodikovim peroksidom in Fentonov reagent. Cilj je bil doseči delno mineralizacijo, predvsem pa povečati biorazgradljivost antibiotikov oziroma zmanjšati strupenost tako v vodi kot v matriksu biološkega blata. Doze ozona, potrebne za pomembno izboljšanje biorazgradljivosti, so za tiamulin 660 mg O3 g-1 (biorazgradljivost s 17 na 60 %) in za levofloksacin 534 mg O3 g-1 (biorazgradljivost z 0 na 100 %). Ozoniranje amoksicilina z 267 mg O3 g-1 pa deluje nasprotno, saj biorazgradljivost poslabša (s 100 na 80 %). Stopnje mineralizacije ob tem so bile od 13 % za tiamulin, 39 % za levofloksacin in 49 % za amoksicilin. Strupenosti za Vibrio fischeri z ozoniranjem nismo odpravili niti pri tiamulinu niti pri levofloksacinu. Strukturne spremembe, ki jih ozoniranje povzroči v tiamulinu, se začnejo z napadom ozona na vinilno dvojno vez in tvorbo karboksilne skupine, nato sledi oksidacija žvepla in dušika, ter zatem postopna razgradnja molekule. Razpad vinilne dvojne vezi in tvorba karboksilne skupine pomeni tudi izgubo antibiotične aktivnosti molekule. Pri tiamulinu in levofloksacinu sledi časovni potek zmanjševanja TOC in KPK kinetiki ničelnega reda, a v dveh stopnjah, kjer je hitrost reakcije v prvi večja kot v drugi. Stopenjsko naravo reakcije je mogoče utemeljiti z analizo strukturnih sprememb molekule med ozoniranjem, ker se v procesu pojavljajo vmesni produkti, ki z nadaljevanjem ozoniranja reagirajo dalje in izginejo, pojavijo pa se končni produkti, ki z ozonom ne reagirajo več. Pri amoksicilinu pa izmerjeni podatki kažejo, da zmanjševanje TOC in KPK s časom sledi kinetiki spremenljivega reda (od ničelnega k prvemu). Fentonova oksidacija daje primerljive učinke kot ozoniranje, vendar ob zelo velikih dozah oksidanta. Za doseganje 80 % biorazgradljivosti pri levofloksacinu namreč potrebujemo 1.955 mg H2O2 g-1, kar je glede na oksidant enakovredno 2.760 mg O3 g-1. Analogno kot ozoniranje, strupenosti s Fentonovim reagentom ne moremo odpraviti. Ozonirali smo tudi z antibiotiki kontaminirano (400 mg L-1) biološko blato, pri tem smo pokazali na sinergijo učinka utekočinjenja blata in deaktivacije antibiotikov. Inhibicijo produkcije bioplina smo z ozoniranjem blata v dozah med 36 in 70 mg O3 gvss-1 povsem odpravili in obenem povečali količino metana v bioplinu. Rezultati študije kažejo, da pri uporabi naprednih oksidacijskih tehnik ni enotnega merila, kateri postopek je bolje uporabiti za določeno vrsto antibiotika, ker so rezultati slabo predvidljivi, predvsem z vidika produktov oksidacije, ki imajo lahko povsem drugačne lastnosti kot izhodiščna molekula. Kljub temu ima ozoniranje brez dvoma velik potencial za uporabo v realnih sistemih biološkega čiščenja, še posebej kot tehnika obdelave z antibiotiki kontaminiranega blata pred anaerobno stabilizacijo. Due to the widespread use of antibiotics in modern society, these substances are also present in low concentrations in the environment. While this does not cause direct negative effects on organisms, it contributes to the spread of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, which is becoming an increasingly pronounced health problem. The purpose of this doctoral dissertation was to determine which advanced oxidation process and what doses of oxidants shoudl be used in order that antibiotics become suitable for conventional biological treatment. To achieve that it is necessary to reduce toxicity and increase biodegradability of the antibiotics. The use of oxidation as a pretreatment before conventional biological treatment could effectively limit the spread of non-biodegradable antibiotics into the environment. Veterinary, poorly biodegradable and environmentally sustainable Tiamulin was used as the model antibiotic. Two antibiotics were used to compare and confirm the effects of oxidation techiques biodegradable betalactam Amoxicillin and non biodegradable fluoroquinolone Levofloxacin. We tested three advanced oxidation techniques ozone, ozone in combination with hydrogen peroxide, and Fenton reagent. The aim was to achieve partial mineralization and, above all, to increase the biodegradability of antibiotics both in water and in the biological sludge matrix. The doses of ozone required to significantly improve biodegradability are for Tiamulin 660 mg O3 g-1 (biodegradability improved from 17 to 60 %) and for Levofloxacin 534 mg O3 g-1 (100 % biodegradability achieved). Ozonation of Amoxicillin with 267 mg of O3 g-1 has the opposite effect, as it reduces biodegradability from 100 to 80 %. Mineralization rates ranged from 13 % for Tiamulin, 39 % for Levofloxacin and 49 % for Amoxicillin. Vibrio fischery toxicity was not eliminated by ozonation neither with Tiamulin nor with Levofloxacin. The structural changes caused by ozonation in Tiamulin begin with the attack of ozone on the vinyl double bond and the formation of a carboxyl group, followed by the oxidation of sulfur and nitrogen atom, and then the gradual decomposition of the molecule. The disintegration of the vinyl double bond and the formation of a carboxyl group also results a loss of antibiotic activity of the molecule. Fenton oxidation gives comparable effects as ozonation, however by application of comparativelly high oxidant doses. To achieve 80 % biodegradability of levofloxacin, 1.955 mg of H2O2 g-1 is needed, which is in terms of oxidant equivalent to 2.760 mg of O3 g-1. Analogous to ozonation, toxicity with Fenton's reagent cannot be eliminated. In the case of tiamulin and levofloxacin, the removal of TOC and COD follows zero-order kinetics, however in two stages, where the reaction rate is higher in the first stage of the reaction. The stepwise nature of the reaction may be justified by the analysis of structural changes of the molecule during ozonation, as intermediates appear in the process, which react further with ozone forming end products, which no longer react with ozone. For amoxicillin, however, measurements indicated that the removal of TOC and COD follows variable-order kinetics (from zero to first). Antibiotic-contaminated (400 mg L-1) biological sludge was also ozonated, showing a synergy between the effect of sludge solubilisation and antibiotic deactivation. Inhibition of biogas production was completely eliminated by ozonation of sludge in doses between 36 and 70 mg of O3 gvss-1 and at the same time the yield of methane in biogas was increased. The results of the study show that when using advanced oxidation techniques there is no single guide on what to use for which antibiotic, because the results are poorly predictable, especially in terms of oxidation products, which may have completely different properties than the parent molecule. Nevertheless, ozonation undoubtedly has great potential for use in industrial scale biological treatment systems, especially as an antibiotic treatment technique for contaminated sludge prior to anaerobic stabilization.

Konvencionalni polimeri predstavljajo veliko večino vseh proizvedenih polimerov, ker imajo dobre mehanske lastnosti, nizko ceno in veliko različnih funkcij uporabe. Vendar njihova razgradnja traja več deset let in pri tem nastane mikroplastika, ki jo je težko odstraniti iz okolja, zato imajo veliko negativnih vplivov na okolje med proizvodnjo in po končani uporabi. Rešitev za omenjene težave bi lahko predstavljali biorazgradljivi polimeri, ki se razgradijo pod vplivom biotskih (živih) dejavnikov. Surovine, iz katerih izdelujemo biorazgradljive polimere, delimo v tri generacije, glede na to, koliko so odvisne od kmetijskega trga. Cilj razvoja novih biorazgradljivih polimerov je, da bi bili čim manj povezani s kmetijstvom in da za njihovo izdelavo ne bi uporabljali veliko zemlje in surovin, ki se uporabljajo za hrano za živali in ljudi. Zato imajo največje možnosti bakterijski polimeri in surovine tretje generacije, ki niso odvisne od kmetijskega trga. Poleg dodatnega razvoja materialov je potreben tudi razvoj postopkov in ustrezne infrastrukture za ravnanje z biorazgradljivimi polimeri po končni izdelavi. Verjetnost razvoja biorazgradljivega polimera, ki je biorazgradljiv v vseh okoljih in pogojih je zelo majhna. Zato je večina do zdaj razvitih biorazgradljivih polimerov biorazgradljivih v specifičnih pogojih in okoljih. Zato je pomembno tudi izobraziti potrošnike o pravilnem odlaganju in standardizirati ter natančneje označevati pogoje in okolja, v katerih so izdelki biorazgradljivi. Conventional polymers represent most of the total polymer production, because of their good mechanical properties, low cost and many different utilization functions. Not only does their decomposition last for decades, it also produces microplastics, which are difficult to remove from the environment and have a very profound negative impact on it. Solution for the aforementioned problem could be biodegradable polymers, that degrade when they are exposed to biotical factors. The main resources for producing biodegradable polymers are divided into three generations, based on the dependence on agriculture. The main goal, associated with producing new biodegradable polymers, is to separate its production from the agriculture, while using as little of the materials beneficial for human and animal consumption as possible. Hence bacterial polymers and third generation feedstock, that are not dependent on agriculture, have the most potential. Besides of the development of biodegradable polymers we need to develop new and improved processes for handling these polymers after they are produced. The fact is, having a polymer which is biodegradable in all climates is effectively impossible, so the focus of research was set on specific conditions. This is why not only research and production are important, but also the education of the general public on the different kinds of biodegradable polymers and standardization and more specific labeling of the conditions for their degradation.

Okolje dnevno onesnažujejo odpadne vode iz različnih industrij. Odpadne vode iz tekstilne industrije so problematične predvsem zato, ker vsebujejo kompleksne in težko biorazgradljive snovi. V okviru magistrskega dela smo preverjali učinkovitost čiščenja izbrane tekstilne odpadne vode z različnimi biološkimi, kemijskimi in fizikalno-kemijskimi metodami. V prvi fazi smo preizkusili možnost biološkega čiščenja, ki predstavlja najboljšo rešitev. Pri tem smo ugotovili, da izbrana odpadna voda ni biološko razgradljiva in je ne moremo očistiti s konvencionalnim postopkom biološkega čiščenja. Uporaba nekonvencionalnega biološkega čiščenja z glivo Dichomitus squalens in njenimi encimi je bila bolj učinkovita kot konvencionalno biološko čiščenje. Glavni mehanizem odstranjevanja onesnaževal je bila adsorpcija na glivno biomaso. Kot primerni rešitvi sta se izkazala procesa koagulacije in Fentonove oksidacije. S prvim smo dosegli 70-odstotno učinkovitost glede na zmanjšanje vrednosti TOC, z drugim pa 61-odstotno. Za dosego boljših rezultatov bi bila potrebna nadaljnja optimizacija obeh procesov. The environment is polluted by wastewaters from various industries. Wastewaters from the textile industry are problematic mainly because they contain complex and non-readily biodegradable substances. In this master’s thesis, we assessed the efficiency of different biological, chemical and physicochemical methods in the treatment of textile wastewater. In the first phase, we evaluated the efficiency of biological treatment, which represents the best option. We determined that the conventional biological treatment was not efficient due to the low biodegradability of the wastewater. However, we decided to also carry out the unconventional biological treatment, using the fungus Dichomitus squalens and its enzymes. It demonstrated greater efficiency than the conventional biological treatment. The main removal mechanism seems to be the adsorption of pollutants on fungal biomass. Coagulation and Fenton oxidation proved to be appropriate solutions. After coagulation, 70% of TOC was removed, while Fenton oxidation removed 61% of TOC. To obtain better results, further optimization of both processes is required.

Zbog održavanja ili poboljšanja kvalitete života, nastoji se smanjiti proizvodnja sintetskih polimera, a naglasak staviti na biorazgradljive polimere. Jedan od predstavnika biorazgradljivih polimera, polikaprolakton, najveću primjenu pronalazi u području biomedicine. Čisti polikaprolakton posjeduje dobra mehanička svojstva što ga čini čes-tim izborom, no svojstva se mogu i poboljšati pripremom kompozitnih materijala. Odlike kompozitnih materijala s polimernom matricom brojna su kvalitetna svojstva koja im omogućuju široku primjenu te vrlo često zamjenjuju klasične materijale. Njihova izrada omogućuje formiranje materijala s poboljšanim svojstvima u odnosu na svojstva poje-dinih komponenti. U novije vrijeme, sve je veća potražnja i primjena polimernih kompozita na bazi polikaprolaktona jer posjeduju modificirana svojstva koja omogućuju širu primjenu i iskoristivost polikaprolaktona kao biorazgradljivog polimera. Njihova je najčešća primjena u koštanom i tkivnom inženjerstvu gdje se kao visokokvalitetni materijali ko-riste za izrade koštanih i tkivnih konstrukcija. U ovom je radu dan literaturni pregled polimernih kompozita na bazi polikap-rolaktona, opisana su provedena ispitivanja, svojstva i potencijalne primjene ovakvih materijala.

U ovom su radu opisana svojstva i primjena poli(vinil-alkohola). Poli(vinil-alkohol) sintetski je polimer s odličnim svojstvima, topljiv u vodi. Karakteriziraju ga visoka vlačna čvrstoća, modul elastičnosti te visoka barijerna svojstva za kisik i aromatske tvari, nekancerogenost, biokompatibilnost, biorazgradljivost te neotrovnost. Odlična svojstva poli(vinil-alkohola) omogućila su mu široku primjenu u mnogim industrijama poput kemijske, farmaceutske, prehrambene, tekstilne te u građevinarstvu, medicini itd. Glavna primjena je u medicini gdje se koriste hidrogelovi na bazi poli(vinil- alkohola) za izradu kontaktnih leća, umjetne hrskavice, kardiovaskularnih implantata i obloga za rane. U tekstilnoj se industriji poli(vinil- alkohol) upotrebljava u obliku vlakana zbog iznimno visoke vlačne čvrstoće. Primjenjuje se i kao emulgator, ljepilo, zaštitni premaz, ambalaža te u obliku sirovine u proizvodnji drugih polimera.

Termogeli so polimeri, ki jim v preteklosti nismo namenjali veliko pozornosti. V zadnjih časih so se izkazali kot odlično sredstvo za transport zdravil. Ena od lastnosti, ki odlikuje termogele, je njihova odzivnost na zunanje dražljaje, tako lahko preprosto vplivamo na sol-gel prehod s pomočjo spremembe temperature. Na področju, ki je povezano z zdravjem mora biti znanost zelo previdna, da sintetizira takšne termogele, ki ne škodujejo človeku. Doseči moramo, da bodo termogeli biorazgradljivi do končnih neškodljivih snovi. V prihodnosti bi se lahko njihova uporaba uveljavila, saj že obstajajo takšni termogeli, ki so relativno finančno dostopni in imajo dobre lastnosti za uporabo. Thermogels are polymers to which we have not paid much attention in the past. In recent times, however, they have proven to be an excellent means of transporting medicines. One of the properties that excels thermogels is their responsiveness to external stimulus, so we can easily influence the sol-gel transition by changing the temperature. In this health-related field, science must be very careful to synthesize such thermogels that do not harm humans. In this area, we need to ensure that thermogels are biodegradable to ultimate non-harmful substances. Their use could be established in the future, as there are already such thermogels that are relatively affordable and have good properties for use.

Kot embala_ni material ima plastika _tevilne prednosti, ampak zaradi njene slabe razgradljivosti v okolju se i__ejo drugi alternativni materiali, ki bi imeli podobne lastnosti, brez negativnih posledic za okolje in ljudi. Eden izmed njih so tudi filmi na osnovi hitozana z dodanimi naravnimi ekstrakti, ki imajo dobre za__itne, antioksidativne in antimikrobne lastnosti. Vendar je njihova usoda v okolju slabo raziskana. Zato smo v sklopu magistrskega dela testirali biorazgradljivost teh filmov v vodnem okolju. Razgradljivost filmov smo spremljali tudi na podlagi spremembe v vsebnosti polifenolov, spremembe v izgledu filmov in analize FT-IR. Rezultati so pokazali, da filmi na osnovi hitozana v vodnem okolju niso biorazgradljivi, vendar se zaradi delovanja mikroorganizmov vseeno ka_ejo spremembe v strukturi in izgledu filmov. As a packaging material, plastic has many advantages, but due to its poor degradability in the environment, other alternative materials with similar properties have been developed, but without negative consequences for the environment and people. One of them could be chitosan-based films with added natural extracts, which have good protective, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. However, their fate in the natural environment is practically unknown. Therefore, the aim of the thesis was to evaluate biodegradability of these films in the aqueous environment. We monitored the degradability of films based on changes in total polyphenolic content, films structure, and the FT-IR analysis. The results showed that chitosan-based films are not biodegradable in the aqueous environment, but some structural changes and appearance of the films due to the action of microorganisms occurred.

Diplomsko delo opisuje in raziskuje problematiko kopičenja plastičnih odpadkov in do sedaj znane možne rešitve tega problema. V prvem delu se osredotoča na sintetične polimere oz. sintetično plastiko in njihovo potencialno mikrobno razgradnjo, saj ti predstavljajo največjo škodo okolju in živim bitjem, ki tam živijo. Navedeni so mikroorganizmi in njihovi izolirani encimi, ki imajo po rezultatih raziskav v določeni meri sposobnost razgrajevati sintetično plastiko. Opisani so osnovni mehanizmi depolimerizacije polimerov in dejavniki, ki vplivajo na stopnjo njihove biorazgradljivosti. Delo se osredotoča na najbolj uporabljene vrste teh plastičnih materialov: polietilen (PE), polistiren (PS), polivinil klorid (PVC), poliuretan (PUR) in polietilen tereftalat (PET). V drugem delu diplomsko delo povzema alternativne možnosti uporabe sintetičnih materialov, predvsem uporabo bioplastike. Razložen je pojem bioplastika in opisane so osnove njene biorazgradnje. Predstavljen je vpliv različnih okoljskih dejavnikov in prisotne mikrobne populacije na stopnjo biorazgradljivosti posameznih polimerov ter navedene so možnosti izboljšanja le te s spreminjanjem kemijske strukture polimerov. V zadnjem poglavju so opisani do sedaj znani mikroorganizmi in nekateri encimi, ki so sposobni razgraditi posamezne vrste bioplastike. This diploma thesis describes the problem of plastic waste and its possible solutions. In the first part, it focuses on synthetic polymers (synthetic plastics) and their potential microbial degradation, since they are presenting the worst danger to our environment and all living creatures. Types of microorganisms and their isolated enzymes, that are showing the most potential regarding many surveys, are stated. It describes basic polymer degradation mechanisms and potential biodegradability factors. It focuses on the most common types of synthetic plastics: polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane (PUR), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). In the second part, the alternative options of synthetic polymer use, mostly in the use of bioplastics are summarized. It describes the meaning of bioplastics and basics of its biodegradation. Influence of different environmental conditions and its microbial population on biodegradability rate of each polymer is described. Some possible improvements of it, by modifying the chemical structure of specific polymers, are also stated. In the last chapter the thesis describes so far known microorganisms, that have the potential of degrading specific types of bioplastics.

The aim of the work was to study the synthesis of polyenaminones, polymers that are insoluble in water but with the ability to be chemically recycled. After overview of various pathways of synthesis, their environmental impact regarding the biodegradability that they would present in natural waters was studied. European legislation related to this area and protocols of waste recovery options were analysed. Finally, a simple life cycle assessment of selected polyenaminone was carried out.

Vodila (vrvice) se v hmeljarstvu uporabljajo kot opora pri rasti hmelja med rastno sezono. Namen diplomskega dela je bil primerjati različna vodila, ki se uporabljajo v hmeljarstvu, in preveriti njihovo učinkovitost. Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti, katero vodilo je najprimernejše za uporabo, ob upoštevanju lastnosti in cene. Vodila za raziskavo so bila izbrana na podlagi rezultatov ankete, izvedene med slovenskimi hmeljarji – preučili smo vodila, ki se uporabljajo v praksi oziroma so bila vsaj že preizkušana na eksperimentalnem posestvu Inštituta za hmeljarstvo in pivovarstvo Slovenije (IHPS). V teoretičnem delu diplomskega dela so predstavljene naslednje teme: zgodovina hmeljarstva in vodil, uporaba vodil (vrvic) v hmeljarstvu, vodila iz naravnih vlaken, vodila iz kemičnih vlaken iz naravnih polimerov ter vodila iz sintetičnih vlaken, prihodnost vodil ter odvoz in shranjevanje hmeljevine (biomasa, ki ostane po obiranju hmelja – listi in stebla, prepletena z vrvicami). V eksperimentalnem delu smo v praksi preizkusili in predstavili 5 hmeljarskih vodil (vrvic) različnega izvora in njihove lastnosti. Na vrvicah so bile pred obešanjem v hmeljišče (nove vrvice) in po staranju na njivi (vzorčeno konec rastne sezone hmelja) izvedene naslednje tekstilno-mehanske preiskave: struktura vrvic, zavoji, dolžinska masa ter natezne lastnosti. Rezultati so pokazali, da število zavojev ne vpliva na natezne lastnosti. Najboljše natezne lastnosti je imela vrvica iz regeneriranih celuloznih vlaken, vendar so se lastnosti te vrvice po staranju v hmeljišču močno poslabšale. Glede na specifikacije imajo vodila iz sintetičnih vlaken boljše lastnosti kot vodila iz naravnih vlaken. Vodila iz kemičnih vlaken iz naravnih polimerov imajo glede na specifikacije sintetičnih vlaken primerljive rezultate. Pri teh vodilih se je po staranju za malenkost zvišala specifična pretržna napetost, medtem ko se je pri drugih vodilih (iz naravnih ter iz sintetičnih vlaken) znižala. Primerjava nabavnih cen vodil pokaže, da so najdražja vodila iz naravnih vlaken, sledijo vodila iz kemičnih vlaken iz naravnih polimerov, najcenejša pa so vodila iz sintetičnih vlaken. Na podlagi primerjave lastnosti in trenutne cene vodil je bila za najbolj ustrezno vrvico izbrana vrvica iz polimlečne kisline (PLA). Supports (twines) are used in hop production to assist hop growth during the growth season. The purpose of this thesis was to compare various supports used in hop growing and review their efficiency. The main aim of the research was to determine which supports are best suited for use, taking into account their qualities and price. The supports sampled were chosen based on the results of a survey done amongst Slovenian hop growers. These supports have already been in use or have at least been tested by the Slovenian Institute of Hop Research and Brewing (SIHRB) on their experimental property. The theoretical part of this thesis consists of the following: the history of hop growing and supports, the use of supports (twines) in hop production, supports from natural fibres, supports from chemical fibres from natural polymers, and supports from synthetic fibres, the future of supports, and the removal and storage of hop plant waste (i.e. biomass left after harvesting, composed of leaves and leaf stems mixed with twines). In the experimental part of the thesis, we tested and discussed five different hop supports (twines), distinguished by their origin and qualities. The following textile-mechanical tests were conducted on the twines before their application on the hop yard (i.e. fresh twines) and after aging in the field (samples were taken at the end of the growing season): twine structure, twists, linear mass density, and tensile properties. Results show that the number of twists does not influence the tensile properties of the twine. Twines from regenerated cellulose fibres have the best tensile properties these properties, however, worsen significantly after the twine ages in the hop field. Based on their specifications, supports from synthetic fibres display better qualities than supports from natural fibres. Supports from chemical fibres from natural polymers show comparable results to supports from synthetic fibres. The former supports also show a slight increase in specific breaking tension after aging, whilst other supports (those from natural fibres and synthetic fibres) show a decrease in specific breaking tension. Comparing the purchase price of supports, the supports from natural fibres are the most expensive, followed by supports from chemical fibres from natural polymers, with supports from synthetic fibres being the lowest in price. Based on the comparison of the qualities and current prices of supports, twines made from polylactic acid (PLA) proved to be best suited for use.

In this study we report the influence of laser ablation on the controlled biodegradability of a Fe–Mn alloy developed for medical implants. After texturing by a nanosecond Nd:YAG laser, the surface expressed extreme super-hydrophilic wetting properties, since laser ablation led to micro-channels and chemical modification resulting in nanostructured metal oxides. The influence of functionalized surface properties on corrosion behavior was examined on molecular level by using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Results reveal that the oxide layer after the laser texturing of Fe–Mn alloy consists mainly of Fe2O3 and FeO, with the content of Mn in the oxide layer being significantly higher than in the bulk. The results of the electrochemical measurements clearly demonstrate the superior biodegradability of the Fe–Mn alloy samples functionalized by laser ablation. Here, the laser-triggered corrosion is self-driven by further production of corrosion products that leads to biodegradability of the whole sample.

Polimeri su makromolekule koje se sastoje od monomernih jedinica te se mogu podijeliti na sintetske i prirodne. Za razliku od prirodnih polimera, većina sintetskih polimera nema mogućnost razgradnje u okolišu što predstavlja danas veliki problem prilikom zbrinjavanja otpada. Kako bi se riješio taj problem, provode se razna istraživanja o biorazgradljivim polimerima. Primjer sintetskog biorazgradljivog polimera je polikaprolakton (PCL) koji je poliester sastavljen od ponavljajućih jedinica heksanoata. Hidrofoban je polimer te se odlikuje izvrsnim svojstvima, između kojih treba istaknuti mogućnost miješanja s raznim polimerima i na taj način doprinosi nastajanju novih materijala pogodnih za korištenje u različite svrhe. Različito područje primjene zahtijeva različita fizikalna i mehanička svojstva materijala zbog čega se PCL miješa s različitim spojevima u različite svrhe. Najviše se primjenjuje u medicini i inženjeringu tkiva kod kojih je vrlo važno osigurati adekvatno prianjanje dobivenog materijala i tkiva. Značajan doprinos ima također kao materijal koji se koristi u ambalažne svrhe te se tada često miješa sa škrobom. Cilj ovog rada je prikazati primjenu i svojstva polikaprolaktona na temelju proučenih znanstvenih istraživanja. S obzirom na široku mogućnost korištenja polimera, istraživanja pokazuju povećanu zainteresiranost i napredak u razvoju biorazgradljivih polimernih mješavina na bazi polikaprolaktona.

V obdobju, ko se zavedamo pomembnosti trajnostnega razvoja, so pereča tematika polimeri. To delo se posveča sintezi polienaminonov in poliuretanov ter razgradnji oziroma recikliranju le teh. Polienaminone smo sintetizirali po novejši metodi iz bisenaminonov in soli aromatskih aminov z vinilogno nukleofilno substitucijsko polimerizacijo. Dobljene oligomere in polimere enaminonskega tipa smo okarakterizirali z 1H NMR in IR spektroskopijo ter določili karakteristike molekulskih mas. Sledilo je kemijsko recikliranje pri povišani temperaturi ob presežnem dimetilaminu v etanolu. Po štirih dneh razgradnje smo ločili komponente reakcijske zmesi in dobili visoke izkoristke recikliranja. Opazili smo spontano polimerizacijo v trdnem, če smo razgradne produkte pustili stati pri sobni temperaturi 24 h. Poliuretane smo sintetizirali v trdnem iz diizocianatov in poliolov v prisotnosti katalizatorja z adicijsko polimerizacijo. Nabor polimerov smo okarakterizirali z 1H NMR spektroskopijo, IR spektroskopijo in elementno analizo. Izvedli smo primerjalne teste biorazgradljivosti z respirometri, pri čemer smo uporabili asimilirane bakterije za hitrejšo razgradnjo. Sintetizirane polimere smo primerjali z referencami, ki niso biorazgradljive in opazili relativno povečanje razgradljivosti. Zanimali so nas termični razgradni produkti in obnašanje polimera ob povišanju temperature, zato smo izvedli Py-GC/MS in DSC meritve. Vsi polimeri so razpadli na izhodne diizocianate, fragmente poliolov in alifatske amine. Pri večini produktov smo opazili steklast prehod pri temperaturi pod 150 °C, le v enem primeru smo opazili tališče. Reflecting on the importance of sustainable development, polymers are a major issue. This work focuses on the synthesis, decomposition and recycling of polyenaminones and polyurethanes. Polyenaminones were synthesized by a relatively new method from bisenaminones and aromatic diamine salts by vinylogous nucleophilic substitution polymerization. The obtained oligomers and polymers of enaminone type were characterized by 1H NMR and IR spectroscopy and molecular characteristics were determined. Chemical recycling was carried out at elevated temperature with excess dimethylamine in ethanol. Depolymerization products were separated and high recycling yields were obtained. Spontaneous polymerization in solid was observed if the evaporated reaction mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature for 24 h after depolymerization. Polyurethanes were synthesized in solid from diisocyanates and polyols in the presence of a catalyst by addition polymerization. The polymers were characterized by 1H NMR spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy and elemental analysis. Comparative biodegradability tests with respirometry were performed. Assimilated bacteria were used for faster degradation. We compared the synthesized polymers with classic non-biodegradable polymers and observed a high relative increase in degradability. We were also interested in thermal decomposition products and the behavior of the polymer with increasing temperature, so we performed Py-GC/MS and DSC measurements. All polymers decomposed into the starting diisocyanates, polyol fragments and aliphatic amines. In most products, a glass transition at temperatures below 150 °C was observed, only in one case a melting point appeared.

Namen diplomske naloge je bilo ovrednotenje strupenosti in biorazgradljivosti polimera 2-propenamida, bolje znanega pod imenom akrilamid, in njegovih kopolimerov. Testiranje strupenosti smo izvedli v dveh ponovitvah na mali vodni leči (Lemna minor) za nedializiran polimer akrilamid, dializiran polimer akrilamid, kopolimer poli(akrilamid-ko-akrilna kislina) in kopolimer akrilamida z akrilno kislino in bisakrilamidom. Odziv male vodne leče na 0,0002 % raztopine polimerov smo ocenili na podlagi spremembe števila členov male vodne leče v obdobju 7 dni. Dobljeni rezultati so pokazali minimalen vpliv na rast male vodne leče (do 10 % inhibicija). Testi biorazgradljivosti so pokazali, da so vzorci slabo biorazgradljivi. Testirani polimeri sicer niso strupeni v takih koncentracijah, kot bi se uporabljale v premazih, ampak bi pri vnosu v okolje verjetno ostali v okolju, ker se zelo slabo razgrajujejo. The main focus of this thesis was to determine toxicity and biodegradability of the 2-propenamide polymer, better known as acrylamide, and its copolymers. Toxicity testing was carried out on common duckweed (Lemna minor) for polymer acrylamide, dialyzed polymer acrylamide, copolymer poly(acrylamide-co-acrylic acid) and copolymer of acrylamide with acrylic acid and bisacrylamide. The response of common duckweed on 0,0002 % sample solution was assessed on the basis of the change of the number of fronds of common duckweed after seven days. The results showed that tested samples are not toxic (inhibition was up to 10 %). Biodegradability testing showed that all tested samples are badly biodegradable. The tested samples are not toxic in the concentrations, which would be used in coatings, but they can persist in the environment because they are not ready degradable.

Embalaža za hrano ima med plastičnimi izdelki najkrajši rok uporabe, saj je pogojena z rokom uporabnosti hrane, ki jo ščiti. Pri hitro pokvarljivi hrani in izdelkih, ki so namenjeni za takojšnje zaužitje, je to lahko tudi manj kot en dan. Po uporabi pa ta plastična embalaža postane odpadek, ki ga večinoma recikliramo, lahko pa konča na deponiji, v sežigalnicah ali v naravi. Iskanje alternativne embalaže je predmet več raziskav in ena izmed predlaganih možnosti so filmi na osnovi hitozana z dodatkom različnih naravnih ekstraktov, ki izboljšajo antioksidativne, mehanske in antimikrobne ter zaščitne lastnosti (UV-zaščita, CO2, O2 in vlaga). Filmi, osnovani iz naravnih polimerov, so lahko obetavna alternativa zaradi svoje potencialne biorazgradljivosti v naravnem okolju. V magistrskem delu sem preverila biorazgradljivost filmov na osnovi hitozana z dodanim hrastovim ekstraktom v treh različnih prsteh: kompostu, vrtni prsti in vinogradniški prsti. Razgradljivost filmov sem spremljala na podlagi izgube mase, spremembe v vsebnosti polifenolov, analize FT-IR in s pregledom površine z vrstičnim elektronskim mikroskopom. Preverila sem tudi, kako vsebnost vlage v prsti vpliva na uspešnost razgradnje filmov. Rezultati so pokazali, da se filmi na osnovi hitozana brez dodanega ekstrakta razgradijo v vseh vrstah prsti in pri vseh testiranih vlažnostih. Filmi z dodanim hrastovim ekstraktom pa so popolnoma razgradljivi v vrtni prsti in v kompostu, ne pa v prsti iz vinograda. Pokazalo se je tudi, da dodatek vode k prsti upočasni hitrost razgradnje filmov. Among plastic products, food packaging is used for the shortest period of time because it is determined by the food shelf life. With perishable foods and products meant for immediate consumption, it can be used for even less than one day. After use, this plastic packaging becomes waste, which can be recycled, ends up in landfills, in incinerators or in the environment. Many studies are focused on finding an alternative packaging, and one of the proposed possibilities are chitosan-based films with various natural extracts that improve antioxidative, mechanical and antimicrobial properties and enhance barrier properties (UV protection, CO2, O2 and water). Because of their potential biodegradability, biopolymer-based films are a promising alternative to conventional plastic. In the master’s thesis, I studied the biodegradability of chitosan-based films with added oak extract in three different types of soil: compost, soil for gardening and soil from vineyards. Degradability was tracked through mass loss, change in polyphenolic content, FT-IR analysis and by examination of surface using a scanning electron microscope. The impact of increased soil humidity was also evaluated. The results have shown that chitosan-based films with no added extract are biodegradable in all types of soil and at both tested water contents. Films with added oak extracts were completely biodegradable in compost and gardening soil, but not in vineyard soil. It was also discovered that adding water to soil slowed down the rate of film degradation.

V naravi najdemo številne zglede učinkovitih in okolju prijaznih rešitev izzivov, s katerimi se dandanes ukvarja človeštvo. Veda, ki trajnostne odgovore na izzive današnje družbe išče v posnemanju naravnih, časovno preizkušenih vzorcev in strategij, se imenuje biomimetika. Biomimetične smernice oblikovanja so bile temelj razvoja večfunkcionalnih embalažnih pletiv, ki ne predstavljajo dodatnega okoljskega bremena, temveč so mnogokratno uporabna in vizualno privlačna. Ohranjanje svežine hrane pomembno prispeva k zdravemu prehranjevanju in zmanjšanju količine zavržene hrane. Na ohranjanje svežine pomembno vpliva shranjevanje hrane, med drugim tudi embalaža. Za gospodinjsko shranjevanje živil se v sodobnosti uporabljajo raznoliki materiali, manj tekstilije. Tekstilije imajo večfunkcionalni potencial za shranjevanje živil. Živila lahko mehansko ščitijo pred udarci, so zračno prepustne in s tem preprečujejo nastanek plesni, so pralne in s tem večkratno uporabne, biorazgradljive in s tem trajnostne, zložljive, prijetne na otip in okrasne, tj. primerne za izdelavo v različnih barvah, velikostih in oblikah. Med tekstilijami se pletiva odlikujejo po razteznosti in prilagodljivosti oblike, možnosti brezšivne izdelave, visoki produktivnosti izdelave, možni samodejni zložljivosti ter možnosti kompleksne funkcionalizacije. Namen raziskave je bil na podlagi teoretičnih in eksperimentalnih izhodišč – inspiracij oblikovati, na industrijskem pletilniku izdelati in preizkusiti vizualno zanimiva, estetska in večfunckcionalna pletiva s potencialim samodejnim prečnim povečevanjem ob hkratnem vzdolžnem raztezanju, kar imenujemo oksetični potencial. Na ravni ozko usmerjene uporabnosti za embalažo je bil namen oblikovati in razviti pletene strukture z več funkcijami za shranjevanje živil, na ravni večuporabnosti pa je bil namen predvideti uporabo teh pletenih struktur tudi na drugih oblačilnih in neoblačilnih področjih. Osrednji cilj raziskave je bila analiza vplivnosti strukturnih parametrov levo-levih pletiv na sposobnost zlaganja, ki izkazujejo večji oksetični in varovalni učinek. Oblikovalsko eksperimentalno delo je temeljilo na sistematičnem razvoju reliefnih in zložljivih struktur z oksetičnim potencialom iz različnih materialov in v različnih gostotah. Tehnološko eksperimentalno delo je obsegalo preizkušanje večfunkcionalnih lastnosti izbranih novooblikovanih pletenih struktur: sposobnosti zlaganja, kompresijskih, protibakterijskih in biorazgradnih lastnosti ter sposobnosti ohranjanja svežine živil. Na koncu je sledila likovna analiza izdelanih večfunkcionalnih pletenih struktur, ki so primerne tako za izdelavo estetsko zanimivih oblačil in ostalih tekstilij kot za izdelavo vizualno privlačnega in funkcionalno koristnega embalažnega materiala za gospodinjsko shranjevanje pekovskih izdelkov/kruha. Nature provides us with many examples of effective and environmentally friendly solutions to the various problems that plague humanity. The study of applying designs from nature to solve problems in engineering, materials science, medicine and other fields is called biomimetics. Biomimetic design guidelines are the basis for the development of knitted fabrics for multifunctional packaging, which do not represent an additional environmental burden, but are often useful and visually appealing. Preserving the freshness of food is an important contribution to healthy nutrition and reducing the amount of discarded food. Food conservation including packaging is important for preserving the freshness of food. For household storage of foods, a variety of materials are used in modern times, of which textiles represent a smaller share. Textiles have multifunctional food storage potential. They can mechanically protect food against impact, they are air-permeable, thus preventing the formation of molds, they are washable and therefore repeatedly usable, biodegradable and thus sustainable, foldable, pleasant to the touch and decorative, i.e. suitable for production in different colors, sizes and shapes. Among the textiles, knitted fabrics are distinguished by their stretchability and flexibility, the possibility of seamless production, high efficiency of production, possible self-folding and the possibility of complex functionalization. The purpose of this research was to formulate based on theoretical and experimental starting points-inspirations, design, produce on an industrial knitting machine and test visually interesting, aesthetic and multifunctional knitted fabrics with auxetic potential – the potential ability of lateral expansion under axial strain. In the area of packaging performance the purpose was to design and develop knitted structures with several functions for food storage, while in the area of multi-purpose use the objective was to anticipate the use of these knitted structures in other clothing and non-clothing areas. The main objective of the study was to analysis the influence of the structural parameters of links-links knitted fabrics on the folding potential, which leads to a greater auxetic and protective effect. Experimental work in design was based on the systematic development of 3D, textured and foldable structures with auxetic potential, from various materials and in different densities. The technological experimental work consisted of testing the multifunctional properties of selected, newly designed, knitted structures for: foldability, compression, antibacterial and biodegradable properties, and the ability to preserve the freshness of food. Finally, a visual analysis of the manufactured multifunctional knitted structures, which are suitable for the production of aesthetically interesting clothing and other textiles, as well as for the production of visually attractive and functionally useful packaging material for household storage of baked goods / breads was performed.

Papirna industrija je ena od večjih porabnikov vode in energije na svetu in eden največjih proizvajalcev odpadne vode. Posebno ravnanje z odpadno vodo je zelo pomembno zaradi zaostrovanja okoljskih omejitev za ta sektor industrije. Aerobni, anaerobni in kombinirani sistemi se uporabljajo za čiščenje odpadne papirniške vode. Sodobna uporaba in obdelava papirniškega mulja običajno zajema sežiganje ali uporabo v gradbene namene ter produkcijo encimov. Ker je papirniški mulj biološko skoraj nerazgradljiv smo poskušali s hidrolizo izboljšati anaerobno razgradnjo mulja, kar bi ob produkciji biometana omogočilo energetski povratek procesu utekočinjanja mulja. S tem bi tudi bistveno zmanjšli količino primarnega in sekundarnega odpadnega papirniškega mulja iz odpadne papirniške vode. Namen naloge je bil preučiti postopek utekočinjanja papirniškega mulja v majhnem visokotlačnem reaktorju pri različnih temperaturah, različnih zadrževalnih časih in koncentracijah klorovodikove kisline (HCl). Optimalno utekočinjanje smo dosegli pri 280 ºC z učinkovitostjo 94 % (7 % HCl), sledijo učinkovitosti 91 % (6 % HCl), 87 % (5 % HCl) ter 71 % (4 % HCl). Po predhodnih raziskavah smo predvideli, da bosta anaerobno razgradnjo zavirala toluen in vinil krotonat, ki sta prisotna kot kemikaliji v proizvodnem procesu papirja. Za kvalitativno in kvantitativno določanje prisotnosti toluena in vinil krotonata - kot potencialna inhibitorja biorazgradnje - smo uporabili plinsko kromatografijo sklopljeno z masno spektrometrijo (GC-MS). Rezultati so pokazali da v mulju ni prisotnosti vinil krotonata, koncentracija toluena pa je nihala med 6,5±0,6 in 5±0,8 ppm, s čem smo dokazali da teh dveh inhibitorjev ni v mulju. Nadaljnja obdelava utekočinjenega mulja je potekala z anaerobno razgradnjo, kjer smo uporabili suspendirano in granulirano biomaso. Najboljši rezultat biometanskega potenciala je znašal 182 L/kgKPK, z 52 % biorazgradljivostjo. Z upoštevanjem porabe energije za izvedbo procesa utekočinjenja, je neto kurilna vrednost utekočinjenega mulja v najboljšem primeru znašala 2075 kJ/kg, kar je nižje kot običajna metoda sežiganja dehidriranega papirniškega mulja, ki daje energijsko vrednost med 2800 in 3600 kJ/kg. Pulp and paper industry is one of the most water and energy intensive sectors in the world, as well as one of the largest producers of wastewater. In particular, the wastewater treatment process is very important due to increasing environmental constraints for this industrial sector. Several techniques such as aerobic, anaerobic and combined aerobic-anaerobic treatments have been used to treat the pulp and paper mill wastewater. To-date there are not many options available for utilizing the pulp and paper mill sludge produced, while its handling costs are high. Generally, the sludge is incinerated or finds some limited usage in construction materials and/or enzyme production. Since the paper mill sludge is almost non-biodegradable, we tried to hydrolyze it and make it in its liquefied form more accessible for anaerobic digestion. This would provide biomethane recovery and most importantly, it would significantly reduce the amount of waste produced. The aim of this work was to study the papermill liquefaction process, in a small high-pressure reactor, in relation to temperature, residence time and concentration of hydrochloric acid (HCl). The optimal liquefaction was achieved at 280 ºC with efficiency of 94 % (7 % HCl), followed by 91 % (6 % HCl), 87 % (5 % HCl) and 71 % (4 % HCl). From previous research, we have anticipated that anaerobic process would be inhibited by toluene and vinyl crotonate, which are present in the pulp and paper production as chemicals. For the quantitative and qualitative analysis of toluene and vinyl crotonate in the paper mill sludge - as potential inhibitors of biodegradation - we used gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Results showed concentrations of toluene between 6.5±0.6 and 5±0.8 ppm and no presence of vinyl crotonate. Further processing of the liquefied paper mill sludge was conducted with anaerobic degradation where we used suspended and granular biomass as inoculum. Best biomethane potential result obtained was 182 L/kg COD with 52 % biodegradation. In respect to the energy consumption for the paper mill sludge liquefaction process, the net calorific value of sludge in the best case was 2075 kJ/kg, which is lower in comparison to the dehydrated paper mill sludge incineration (between 2800 and 3600 kJ/kg), considered to-date as the best available technology.

Zbog sve većih problema s odlaganjem otpada nastoje se pronaći učinkovita rješenja zbrinjavanja plastičnog otpada. U ovom radu iz taljevine su pripremljeni biokompoziti na osnovi polietilena niske gustoće (LDPE) i lignoceluloze (rižinih ljuskoca, RLJ) u cilju dobivanja biokompozita za primjenu kao ambalažnog materijala. Biokompoziti LDPE i RLJ uz različite udjele RLJ (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mas %) pripremljeni su u Brabender gnjetilici. Ispitan je utjecaj RLJ i njihovog udjela na fizikalna i toplinska svojstva LDPE/RLJ biokompozita. Određena je raspodjela veličina čestica RLJ, propusnost vodene pare, debljina filmova te je proveden postupak kompostiranja. Pokazalo se da rižine ljuskice snizuju toplinsku stabilnost LDPE-a, povećavaju propusnost vodene pare, povećavaju stupanj kristalnosti i poboljšavaju biorazgradljivost LDPE-a. With increasing problems concerning waste efficient solutions for the disposal of plastic waste can be try find. The aim of this work was to prepare biocomposites with melt mixing (compounding) of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) with natural lignocellulose, rice husk (RH) in order to obtain biocomposites as a packaging materials. The LDPE/RH biocomposites with different content of rice husk (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 wt %) were prepared by laboratory Brabender mixer. The effect of RH and their content on physical and thermal properties of biocomposites were investigated. The particle size distribution has been determined along with water vapour permeability, width of the films and LDPE/RH biolpolymers were decomposed by composting process . The results confirmed that the incorporation of the RH into the LDPE and increase of the content of the RH decreased thermal stability of LDPE, increased water vapour permeability, increased degree of crystallinity and the most important thing that they increased biodegradability of LDPE.

V okviru diplomskega dela smo kompostirali določene naravne in sintetične tekstilne materiale. Postopek kompostiranja bi lahko uporabljali za recikliranje tekstilnih odpadkov. Kompostiranje viskoze, volne, bombaža ( naravni tekstilni materiali) in PES ter PA 6,6 (sintetični tekstilni materiali) je potekalo tri mesece. Mesečno smo spremljali spremembe na vzorcih s pomočjo gravimetrične metode in metode vizualnega ocenjevanja in evidentiranja vzorcev med kompostiranjem. Vzorci iz viskoze, volne in bombaža so se po treh mesecih kompostiranja v celoti oziroma delno razgradili, pri vzorcih iz PES in PA 6,6 pa ni prišlo do razgradnje. As a part of this diplomatic work, we composted certain natural and synthetic textile materials. The process of composting could be used for recycling textile waste. Composting of viscose, wool, cotton (natural textile materials) and PES and PA 6,6 (synthetic textile materials) took three months. Every month we observed the changes on samples with the gravimetrical method and the method of visual grading and evidencing samples between composting. After three months viscose, wool and cotton samples have completely or partially composed, as for the other PES and PA 6,6 samples, composting didn’t take place.

V diplomskem delu smo sintentizirali biorazgradljive aerogele, pripravljene iz pektina, alginata in mešanice pektin-alginat (1:1). Aerogeli so visoko porozni materiali, ki se zaradi svojih lastnosti lahko uporabljajo tudi kot potencialni nosilci aktivnih substanc. Aerogele sintentiziramo po sol-gel postopku z različnimi načini zamreženja. V našem delu smo uporabili fizikalno zamreženje z divalentnimi ioni. Preverjali smo vpliv različnih ionov (Zn2+, Ca2+ in Sr2+) na končno morfologijo aerogela in tudi na sproščanje aktivne substance. Kot modelno substanco smo uporabili diklofenak natrij. Sintentizirali smo devet tipov aerogelov. Karakterizirali smo jih s FTIRom, plinsko adsorpcijo ter preverjali njihovo nabrekanje v simulirani želodčni in prebavni tekočini. Z in-vitro testi sproščanja smo preverjali sproščanje substance. Glede na morfologijo in sproščanje substance smo ugotovili, da so najbolj primerni pektinski aerogeli, zamreženi s cinkom. Z njimi smo dobili najbolj kontrolirano sproščanje substance, v eni uri se je sprostilo okrog 40 %, v 7 h pa več kot 80 %. Potencialni nosilci bi lahko bili tudi alginatni aerogeli, zamreženi s cinkom, ki imajo podobne karakteristike kot pektinski. Kot najslabši so se izkazali aerogeli zamreženi s kalcijem. In the thesis, we synthesized a biodegradable aerogels prepared from pectin, alginate and pectin-alginate mixture (1:1). Aerogels are high porous materials that could be, due to their outstanding properties, used as potential carriers for active substances. Aerogels are synthesized by sol-gel process with the different types of cross-linking. In this thesis, physical cross-linking using divalent ions was used to prepare spherical aerogels. We examined the impact of three different ions (Zn2+, Ca2+ in Sr2+) on a final morphology of aerogels as well as on the release of the active substance. Model substance used in this work was diclofenac sodium. Nine types of aerogels were synthesized, based on three types of polysaccharides (pectin, alginate and pectin-alginate) and three types of ions (Zn2+, Sr2+ and Ca2+). Swelling experiments, nitrogen adsorption and FTIR were performed to characterize the material. Pectin aerogel, cross-linked with zinc, showed the best characteristics to control the substance release. In initial hour 40 % of the substance was released by this carrier and in the total of 7 h more than 80 % of the drug was released. Alginate aerogels, cross-linked with zinc showed similar characteristics as pectin and they could be also used to control the release of diclofenac sodium. Cross-linking with calcium turned out not to be suitable for prolonging the release of this substance.

Poput većine materijala koje ljudi upotrebljavaju i polimerni se materijali preporučuju u literaturi, a povremeno i klinički primjenjuju kao pomagala ili dijelovi pomagala u kirurgiji, zubarstvu i farmaciji u liječenju ozljeda i bolesti. Svim tim primjenama zajednička je djelotvorna uloga polimera u dodiru sa životinjskim i ljudskim stanicama, tkivomi/ili organima. U novije je vrijeme otkriveno da su polimeri koji se rabe za izradu plastične ambalaže, u koloidnim suspenzijama boja i u mnogim drugim oblicima u okruženju isto tako u dodiru sa živim sustavima u kojima uzrokuju probleme povezane s održivošću, s otpuštanjem kemikalija ili zagađivala i s uklanjanjem otpada. Navedeno je u osnovi vrlo slično problemima koji se javljaju tijekom primjene polimera u liječenju. Nije zanemarivo napomenuti da se biotehnologija i obnovljivi izvori smatraju privlačnim izvorima polimera. Kako svi navedeni primjeri uključuju vodu, ione, biopolimere, stanice i tkiva, proizlazi da bi znanstvenici iz područja polimera, medicine, biologije i ekologije pri opisivanju sličnih svojstava, fenomena i mehanizama trebali rabiti jednako nazivlje. Posebno je zanimljivo područje "razgradljivih ili biorazgradljivih polimera" namijenjenih proizvodnj imaterijala vremenski ograničene trajnosti primjenljivih u medicini i u okolišu u kojemu bi, uvažavajući živi sustav, uklanjanje i bioobnovljivost trebali biti gotovo idealni., Like most of the materials used by humans, polymeric materials are proposed in the literature and occasionally exploited clinically, as such, as devices or as part of devices, by surgeons, dentists, and pharmacists to treat traumata and diseases. Applications have in common the fact that polymers function in contact with animal and human cells, tissues, and/or organs. More recently, people have realized that polymers that are used as plastics in packaging, as colloidal suspension in paints, and under many other forms in the environment, are also in contact with living systems and raise problems related to sustainability, delivery of chemicals or pollutants, and elimination of wastes. These problems are basically comparable to those found in therapy. Last but not least, biotechnology and renewable resources are regarded as attractive sources of polymers. In all cases, water, ions, biopolymers, cells, and tissues are involved. Polymer scientists, therapists, biologists, and ecologists should thus use the same terminology to reflect similar properties, phenomena, and mechanisms. Of particular interest is the domain of the so-called „degradable or biodegradable polymers” that are aimed at providing materials with specific time-limited applications in medicine and in the environment where the respect of living systems, the elimination, and/or the bio-recycling are mandatory, at least ideally.

Tekstilne odpadne vode so zelo kompleksne mešanice in so zelo težko biološko razgradljive. Poleg tega je zančilnost tekstilnih odpadnih vod še močna obarvanost in visoka kemijska potreba po kisiku. Navadne čistilne naprave so neuspešne pri razbarvanju in čiščenju tovrstnih odpadnih vod. V našem poskusu smo obdelovali močno obarvano tekstilno odpadno vodo iz Tekstine - Tekstilna Ajdovščina d.d. Za ta namen smo uporabljali dva laserja, ekscimerni XeCl (308 nm) in kontinuirni Ar - ionski laser (244 nm). Po obdelavi smo uspešnost metode določali s primerjavo absorcijskih spektrov, kemične potrebe po kisiku in biološke razgradljivosti obdelanih in neobdelanih vzorcev. Izkazalo se je, da je bila naša metoda neuspešna, saj so bile spremembe obdelanih in neobdelanih vzorcev zanemarljive. Spremembe v kemijski potrebi po kisiku in biološki razgradljivosti lahko pripišemo napakam meritev. Textile waste waters are very complex mixtures and poorly biodegradable. Beside this, textile waste waters are highly coloured and have a high chemichal oxigen demand. Conventional waste water treatment plants are inefficient for removal of the colour and cleaning of these waste waters. In our experiment, we treated highly coloured waste water from Tekstina - Tekstilna Ajdovščina d.d (Texstile Industry in the town of Ajdovščina). For this purpose, two lasers were used, an excimer XeCl (308 nm) and a continious Ar - ion laser (244 nm). After the treatment, we determined the method successby confronting absorption spectra, chemichal oxigen demand and biodegradation of the treated and untreated samples. The results revealed that our experiment was not successful, because the changes between the treated and untreated samples were negligible. It can be presumed that the changes in chemichal oxigen demand and biodegradation were affected by the mistakes made through measurements.

Moderan svijet i moderna industrija uz mnoštvo stvari kojima olakšavaju život današnjeg čovjeka, veliki su onečišćivaći koji svojim nusproduktima proizvodnje ili pak proizvodima nakon njihove upotrebe, ostavljaju neizbrisiv štetan utjecaj na okoliš. Otpad i njegovo nagomilavanje bitno smanjuju kvalitetu ljudskog života, a i uzrokuju velike probleme za budućnost. Kao jedan od načina ili pogleda za smanjenje količine otpada jest biodegradacija i biopolimeri. Biodegradacija je proces prirodne razgradnje materijala djelovanjem tvari iz okoliša do njegovih konačnih produkata. S druge strane, biopolimeri su polimeri dobiveni iz prirodnih sirovina, bilo biljnog ili životinjskog podrijetla, koji su razgradivi. Djelovanjem mikroorganizama, bakterija i gljivica razgrađuju se do krajnjih produkata – vode i ugljikova dioksida u aerobnim uvjetima te vode i metana u anaerobnim uvjetima. Dodatkom biopolimera sintetskom polimeru stvara se sustav koji djelovanjem vanjskih uvjeta može biti degradabilan, što znači da se dodatkom biopolimera potiče razgradnja sintetskog polimera. U ovom radu istražena su svojstva sintetičkog polimera polietilena (PE) i biorazgradivog polimera polilaktida (PLA). Mješavine različitog udjela PLA polimera u PE izložene su hidrolitičkom djelovanju. Svojstva mješavina praćena su tijekom različitih vremena primjenom FTIR analize, rasteznih ispitivanja i toplinskih metoda. Utvrđene su promjene u strukturi koje su rezultirale pogoršanjem svojstava istraživanih materijala.

Industrijske pralnice so veliki porabniki sveže vode in pralnih sredstev, zaradi česar se čiščenju odpadnih vod namenja veliko pozornosti z ekološkega in ekonomskega vidika. Veljavna zakonodaja in visoki stroški okoljskih dajatev za onesnaženje voda, prisilijo industrijske pralnice k zmanjševanju količine odpadnih voda. V dosedanjih raziskavah je bilo ugotovljeno, da so odpadne vode iz pralnic zelo onesnažene, zaradi česar so potrebne različne metode čiščenja odpadnih vod, ki pa so precej drage. Zato je nujno potrebno zmanjšati onesnaženje odpadne vode z uporabo okolju prijaznejših pralnih in razkuževalnih sredstev, optimizirati postopke pranja in nato uvesti primerno metodo čiščenja s katero zmanjšamo količino odpadne vode. V okviru doktorske disertacije smo uvedli nov, okolju prijazen kemijsko-termični postopek pranja bolnišničnih tekstilij, ki poteka pri nižji temperaturi pranja. Pri pranju smo uporabili novo, ekološko primernejšo pralno sredstvo ter kombinirano belilno, razkuževalno in nevtralizacijsko sredstvo na osnovi perocetne kisline, vodikovega peroksida in ocetne kisline. Z uporabo takšnega razkuževalnega sredstva smo lahko znižali temperaturo pranja iz 90 °C na 40 °C in tako znižali porabo električne energije. Istočasno smo preskušali tudi dezinfekcijski učinek postopka pranja, ki ga pralnice bolnišničnega perila morajo zagotavljati, kakor tudi negativne učinke postopkov pranja na življenjsko dobo perila. V nadaljevanju raziskve smo optimirali sistem za čiščenje in recikliranje odpadnih voda z uporabo membranskega bioreaktorja (MBR), ki se bo lahko prilagodil različnim vrstam odpadnih vod v pralnicah. Pri različnih obratovalnih pogojih reaktorja smo preučevali biorezgradljivost posameznih komponent v sintetični pralni odpadni vodi. Na podlagi rezultatov smo določili optimalne pogoje delovanja MBR, ki so bili osnova za čiščenje različno obremenjene pralne odpadne vode. Podali smo možnost ponovne uporabe prečiščene vode v postopku pranja (recikliranje), na podlagi katere bi pralnice zmanjšale količino odpadnih voda in porabo sveže vode. Rezultat izvedene študije prikazuje možnost uporabe nizko temperaturnega pranja, pri čemer je higiena samega postopka pranja še vedno zagotavlja, njegova uvedba pa ima tudi pomemben vpliv na okolje, saj se močno zmanjša poraba električne energije. V študiji predlagana uvedba čiščenja in recikliranja prečiščene vode, zniža poraba sveže vode, zaradi česar so materialni stroški pralnice znižani. Industrial laundries are large consumers of fresh water and detergent and that requires great attention, from ecological and economic point of view, to the wastewater treatment. The current legislation and the high environmental charges for water pollution, force the industrial laundries into reducing the quantity of wastewater. In previous studies it was found that the wastewaters from laundries are polluted heavily and that requires different methods of wastewater treatment, which are, however, quite expensive. It is therefore necessary to reduce wastewater pollution by using environmentally friendly detergents and disinfectant agents, to optimize the processes of washing, and then apply the appropriate cleaning method to reduce the amount of wastewater. In the dissertation we have introduced a new, environmentally friendly chemo-thermic process for the laundering of hospital linen, which operates at a lower wash temperature. In the washing process we used a new, ecologically suitable detergent and combined bleaching, disinfecting and neutralizing agent based on peracetic acid, hydrogen peroxide and acetic acid. By using such a disinfecting product we were able to reduce the washing temperature from 90 ° C to 40 ° C, and because of that the consumption of electrical energy was lower. At the same time, we tested disinfection of the washing processes, which must be achieved by laundries which are washing hospital linen, as well as the negative effects of the washing procedures on the life span of the linen. In addition, we optimized the system for cleaning and recycling of the wastewaters by using a Membrane Bioreactor (MBR), which can be adapted to different types of laundering wastewater. At different operating conditions of the reactor, we studied the biodegradation of individual components in synthetic laundering wastewater. Based on the results we determined the optimal working conditions of the MBR, which were the basis for the treatment of various loaded wastewater from laundries. We represent the possibility for reuse of filtrate (recycling)in laundering process, based on which the laundries can reduce the quantity of wastewaters and fresh water consumption. The results of the study shows the possibility of using low-temperature washing, where the hygiene of the washing process itself is still guaranteed, but its introduction has a significant impact on the environment as it reduces energy consumption greatly. In this study the suggested technology for cleaning and recycling of purified water will reduce the consumption of fresh water and, therefore, decrease the material costs of laundry.

V doktorski disertaciji je bil proučen vpliv protimikrobnega sredstva 3-(trimetoksisilil)-propildimetiloktadecil amonijevega klorida (TMPAC) na biorazgradljivost dveh celuloznih substratov. V prvem delu naloge je bila preiskana biorazgradljivost TMPAC obdelane bombažne tkanine v primerjavi z neobdelano ob uporabi vrstične elektronske mikroskopije, FT-IR ATR spektroskopije, diferenčne dinamične kalorimetrije in z določanjem izgube mase. Iz rezultatov je bilo razvidno, da protimikrobno sredstvo TMPAC zmanjšuje stopnjo razgradnje bombažne tkanine, kar je bilo dokazano predvsem z morfološkimi in kemijskimi spremembami med procesom razgradnje. Kemijske spremembe so bile raziskane s pomočjo FT-IR ATR spektroskopije in dokazane zlasti s prisotnostjo amidnih in karboksilnih funkcionalnih skupin. Amidne funkcionalne skupine so nastale kot posledica prisotnosti proteinov nastalih z mikrobno rastjo, medtem, ko so karboksilne funkcionalne skupine nastale kot posledica oksidativne razgradnje celuloze. Dejstvo, da protimikrobno sredstvo TMPAC znižuje stopnjo razgradnje bombažne tkanine je bilo pojasnjeno z močno hidrofobnim značajem TMPAC obdelane površine, kar smo dokazali z večjim stičnim kotom TMPAC obdelanega bombaža v primerjavi z neobdelanim. V drugem delu naloge je bila proučena encimska razgradnja modelnega celuloznega filma obdelanega s protimikrobnim sredstvom TMPAC, v primerjavi z neobdelanim filmom ob uporabi mikroskopije na atomsko silo in elipsometrije. Uporabljene celulaze so bile pridobljene iz gliv Trichoderma viride in Aspergillus niger. Po dodatku encimov k modelnemu celuloznemu filmu, je po začetni adsorpciji encimov na substrat sledila nadaljnja razgradnja celuloze. Encimska razgradnja celuloze je bila dokazana s konstantno izgubo v masi filma ter z ne-monotonim obnašanjem v debelini filma, ki dokazuje, da encimi ne razgrajujejo samo površine filma ampak tudi penetrirajo v film. Učinkovitost uporabljenih celulaz je bila različna in veliko višja stopnja razgradnje je bila opažena pri uporabi celulaze Trichoderma viride. Stopnja razgradnje se je ob uporabi te celulaze očitno znižala, ko je bil celulozni film predhodno obdelan s protimikrobnim sredstvom TMPAC, medtem, ko pa protimikrobno sredstvo ni imelo pomembnega učinka na razgradnjo ob prisotnosti celulaze Aspergillus niger. Dokazano je bilo, da v odvisnosti od tipa celulaze, protimikrobno sredstvo TMPAC zavira encimsko učinkovitost na fazni meji trdno-tekoče. TMPAC povzroča hidrofobnost modelnega celuloznega filma in s tem zavira adsorpcijo encimov na površino substrata. ABSTRACT The influence of the antimicrobial agent 3-(trimethoxysilyl)-propyldimethyloctadecyl ammonium chloride (TMPAC) on the biodegradation of two cellulose substrates was studied. Firstly, the biodegradation of TMPAC treated cotton fabric in comparison with untreated cotton fabric was investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), weight loss measurements, Fourier Transform Infrared Attenuated Total Reflectance (FT-IR ATR) spectroscopy and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). It was observed that the antimicrobial agent TMPAC decreases the degradation rate of the cotton fabric which was proven mostly by the morphological and chemical changes throughout the biodegradation process. The chemical changes were investigated by using FT-IR ATR spectroscopy and proven by the presence of amide groups as well as by the presence of carboxylic functional groups. Amide groups were produced as consequence of the proteins produced by microbial growth meanwhile the carboxylic groups were produced as consequence of oxidative degradation of cellulose. The fact that the antimicrobial agent TMPAC decreases the degradation rate of cotton fabric is explained by the strong hydrophobic character of the TMPAC treated surface which was proven by the higher contact angle for TMPAC treated cotton in comparison with untreated cotton fabrics. Secondly, the enzymatic degradation of model cellulose film treated with antimicrobial agent (TMPAC) in comparison with pure cellulose film was investigated by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and by in situ-null ellipsometry. The cellulases used were extracted from Trichoderma viride and Aspergillus niger. After enzyme addition to the previously equilibrated cellulose film, the initial enzyme adsorption on the substrate was followed by the cellulose film degradation. The enzymatic degradation of cellulose was proven by a constant loss of the film mass and a non-monotonous behaviour of the film thickness which suggest that the enzymes degrade not only the top of the surface but also penetrate into the cellulose film. The activities of the two enzymes were different, a much higher degradation rate being observed for the Trichoderma viride cellulase. The degradation rate with this cellulase decreased significantly when the cellulose film was treated with the antimicrobial agent TMPAC, meanwhile the antimicrobial agent did not affect the cellulose degradation significantly in the presence of Aspergillus niger cellulase. Hence, it was demonstrated for the first time that, depending on the cellulase type, the antimicrobial agent can inhibit enzymatic activity at the solid-liquid interface. TMPAC causes hydrophobicity of the model cellulose film and thus inhibits the adsorption of the enzymes on the surface.

Hidrogelovi su zahvaljujući njihovoj karakterističnoj trodimezijskoj strukturi pronašli brojnu primjenu kao adsorbensi u industriji i poljoprivredi gdje se koriste kao spremnici vode te za doziranje herbicida/pesticida, zatim u kozmetičkoj industriji, a najznačajnija njihova primjena je u medicini i farmaciji. Biorazgradivi hidrogelovi predstavljaju nov i napredan način doziranja lijekova, kombinirajući istovremeno prednosti tradicionalnih hidrogelova s različitim mogućnostima degradacije, što dalje omogućava poboljšanu kontrolu procesa oslobađanja aktivne tvari. Nadalje, mreže na temelju poliestera i različitih hidrofilnih polimera, umrežene uz pomoć metakrilatnih skupina, nameću se kao način dobivanja polimernih potpora u inženjerstvu tkiva. U ovom radu je provedena sinteza hidrogelova na temelju graftiranih kopolimera poli(vinil alkohola) i poli(laktida) ili poli(laktid-ko-glikolida) umreženih pomoću metakrilatnih skupina pri čemu su kontrolirani duljina i sastav poliesterskih lanaca u trostupanjskoj sintezi. Nakon toga, provedena je toplinska analiza polimernih mreža kako bi se pratila međuovisnost strukture i svojstava. DSC termogrami ispitivanih mreža i PVA uzorka su prikazani na slici 1. Svi uzorci su pokazali samo jednu temperaturu staklastog prijelaza iz čega se vidi da ne dolazi do razdvajanja faza. Budući da ne dolazi niti do pojave kristalizacije i taljenja, mreže se mogu smatrati amorfnima. Temperature staklastog prijelaza ispitivanih mreža se javljaju u raspo-nu između 51 oC i 69 oC. TGA i DTGA krivulje uzoraka pokazuju da se degradacija odvija u tri stupnja.

Istraživana je toplinska i enzimatska razgradnja mješavina PVC-a i alifatsko-aromatskog kopoliestera.Početna temperatura toplinske razgradnje ne ovisi bitno o vrsti plina, ali je brzina razgradnje veća u zraku. Ostatak mase pri toplinskoj razgradnji u inertu je oko 12 %, dok je toplinska razgradnja u zraku potpuna. Gubitak mase po jedinici površine povećava se tijekom enzimatske razgradnje, ali nije proporcionalan sadržaju AAC-a. Najveći gubitak mase je u mješavini 70/30 (oko 9 mikro g cm-2). Rezultati pokazuju da pored enzimatske razgradnje AAC-a vjerojatno dolazi i do enzimatske razgradnje maziva koja su dodana radi bolje preradljivosti mješavina.

Sažetak Univerzalno traktorsko transmisijsko ulje (UTTU) je višenamjensko traktorsko ulje namijenjeno podmazivanju transmisije, zadnjeg mosta, diferencijala, mokrih kočnica te hidrauličkog sustava uz uporabu zajedničkog uljnog spremnika. U radu je opisan razvoj i ispitivanje biorazgradljivog UTTU ulja biljnog porijekla. Svojstva ulja na osnovi uljne repice i visoko oleinskog suncokretovog ulja uspoređena su ispitivanjem na standardnim ispitnim postupcima sa svojstvima komercijalno dostupnih mineralnih UTTU ulja. Tribološka svojstva ispitivana su na visoko frekvencijskom urađaju SRV, aparatu sa četiri kuglice i na zupčaničkom ispitnom stolu FZG. Za zaključna ispitivanja korišteni su laboratorijski hidraulički sustav i probni stol sa čelnim zupčanicima., Universal tractor transmission oil (UTTO) is multipurpose tractor oil formulated for use in transmissions, final drives, wet brakes and hydraulic systems of tractors employing a common oil reservoir. In the present work the development of biodegradable vegetable based UTTO oil has been described. The properties of formulated rapeseed and high oleic sunflower based oils were investigated in the standard test procedures and compared with the commercially available mineral UTTO oil. Tribological performances of the fluids were demonstrated by using srv high frequency test device, four ball test rig and FZG spur gear test. For final tests a laboratory hydraulic system and a spur gear test rig were used.

Sažetak Ekološki prihvatljiva maziva su ona, koja će u kontaktu s okolišem uzrokovati minimum štetnog djelovanja, i kod proizvodnje i primjene i kod zbrinjavanja otpada. Jedan od uvjeta ekološke prihvatljivosti je biološka razgradljivost maziva. Pored biološke razgradljivosti potrebna su i ekotoksikološka ispitivanja na bakterije, alge i ribe te određivanje bioakumulacije maziva., Ecologically acceptable lubricants are those that when in contact with the environment cause minimal detrimental effects, both in the process of production and application as well as in the phase of waste disposal. The biodegradability of lubricants is one of the conditions of their ecological acceptability. Along with the biodegradability condition, an ecotoxicological testing on bacterias, sea weeds (algae) and fish is necessary to determine the bioaccumulation of lubricants.

Sažetak Mazivo za horizontalne bušotine primjenjuje se u isplakama za povećanje njezinih podmazujućih svojstava prilikom provedbe postupaka bušenja. Dobro podmazuju}e svojstvo isplake je vrlo značajno zbog znatne uštede vremena, produženja trajnosti opreme, smanjivanja broja manevara i isplativije provedbe ukupnog postupka bušenja. Primjenom ekoloških povoljnih sirovina u mazivima moguće je spriječiti zagađivanje okoliša (tla i vode). Repičino ulje spada u grupu baznih ulja prihvatljivih za okoliš te osim lake i relativne brze biorazgradnje ima i druga povoljna svojstva: dobru mazivost, visoku viskoznost, dobru prionljivost na metalne površine i vrlo dobru podnošljivost na opterećenja. Loša primjenska svojstva repičinog ulja: ponašanja na visokoj i niskoj temperaturi, hidrolitička stabilnost te svojstvo pjenjenja moguće je poboljšati ugradnjom odgovarajućih aditiva., Lubricant for horizontal wells shall be applied in mud for increasing their lubricating properties during the performance of drilling procedures. A good lubricating property of drilling mud is very important for a considerable time-saving, prolongation of equipment durability, reduction of the number of manoeuvres, and more cost-effective operation of the entire drilling procedure. Pollution of the environment (soil and water) is preventable by applying environmentally more advatageous raw materials in lubricants. Rapeseed oils belongs to a group of base oils acceptable for the environment, so, in addition to an easy and relatively fast biodegradation it has also other advantageous properties as good lubricity, high viscosity, good adhesiveness to metal surfaces, and very good loadcarrying properties. It is possible to improve poor application properties of rapeseed oil: behaviour at high and low temperatures, hidrolytic stability, as well as foaming property, by admixing suitable additives.

Sažetak Za kritična mjesta podmazivanja kod kojih se postavljaju strogi ekološki uvjeti sve se više koriste biorazgradljive masti. Takve masti moraju u kratkom vremenskom razdoblju imati visok stupanj biološke razgradljivosti. Ukoliko to nemaju, mogle bi štetno djelovati ako dospiju u okoliš bilo u tlo bilo u vode. S obzirom da mazive masti na osnovi rafiniranih mineralnih ulja ne mogu zadovoljiti ove uvjete, biorazgradljive masti se izrađuju iz prirodnih ili sintetičkih estera. Biorazgradljive mazive masti moraju biti neotrovne, a u pravilu su višenamjenske s EP svojstvima, te se primjenjuju i za ručno i za automatsko podmazivanje. U radu su izneseni podaci o izradi dvije biorazgradljive mazive masti različite konzistencije na osnovi litijevih i kalcijevih sapuna i sintetičkih biorazgradljivih estera. Također su izneseni podaci o primjenskim ispitivanjima u HŽ Hrvatskim željeznicama., Biodegradable lubricating greases are becoming increasingly used for critical application spots, on which severe environmental requirements are imposed. Such greases must be characterized by a high degree of biodegradability over a short period of time. If that is not the case, they could bear a harmful impact on either environment in general, or soil and waters. Given that lubricating greases based on refined mineral oils cannot meet these requirements, biodegradable greases are made of either natural or synthetic esters. Biodegradable lubricating greases have to be non-toxic. As a rule, they are multipurpose and have EP properties, and are applied in both manual and automatized lubrication. The paper provides data on the making of two biodegradable greases different thickeners, based on lithium soaps and synthetical biodegradable esters. It also provides data on field tests performed at HŽ (The Croatian Railways) company.