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Anthrax is a notorious disease of public health importance caused by Bacillus anthracis. The causative agent can also be used as a biological weapon. Spores of these bacteria can sustain extreme environmental conditions and remain viable in soil for decades. Domestic and wild ruminants are highly susceptible to this pathogen, which usually presents as a peracute to acute disease. In humans, cutaneous anthrax is frequent but pulmonary and enteric anthrax are more serious. Humans, animals, and the environment are all involved, making anthrax a perfect target for a One Health approach. The environment plays a key role in disease transmission. At a time when the One Health concept is not mere slogans, collaborative efforts of medical professionals, veterinarians, and environmental scientists will be valuable for the prevention and control of this disease. In this review, we discussed the transmission dynamics of anthrax in the environment, animals, and humans, as well as One Health strategies to control and prevent anthrax. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveTo provide scientific support for the compilation of high-quality anti-nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) medical textbooks in China by retrieving books in the field of biological weapons defense in China, summarizing the publication time and distribution of publishing institutions, and categorizing content and key points of related books.MethodsRelevant subject terms in the field of biological weapons defense were searched through the official website of China National Digital Library and other websites, up until December 31, 2023, and were limited to books. Topic analysis was conducted on the introductions and contents of the books using the latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) model. The number of topics was determined based on perplexity, and topics were identified according to the intertopic distance map, followed by a qualitative description of the core content of each topic.ResultsA total of 104 books were included in this study, among which four were identified as higher educational textbooks. The volume of publications increased during the periods 2002‒2004 and 2020‒2023. Research institutions accounted for the highest percentage of publishers (37.78%), and 56.67% of the publishers were military institutions. The study identified six topics: "distribution, defense, and response to biological weapons", "category, diagnosis, and treatment of biological warfare agents", "response to biological public health emergencies", "status of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons internationally", "biosafety risk management and prevention and control", and "technologies and equipment related to biological hazard identification".ConclusionThere are few books in the field of biological weapons defense in China and the content is relatively outdated. In the future, the preparation of teaching materials should be aimed at practical emergency handling techniques for biological weapons, enhance the emphasis on biological weapons detection and biological warfare early warning, improve the fundamental theories at different training levels, and timely update the current research status in the field.

Anthrax is a serious infection caused by Bacillus anthracis. The anthracis spores are highly resistant and can persist in the environment for several decades. Therefore, anthrax is considered a global health threat affecting wildlife, livestock, and the general public. The resistance mechanism is influenced not only by the environment or the ecological niche but also by virulence factors. In the last 10 years the Southern and Southeastern Europe have been confronted with this threat. Recently, there have been 8 human anthrax cases reported in Croatia (2022), and 4 cases in Romania (2023). Moreover, this incident and the COVID situation could be a starting point to encourage researchers to raise the alarm. On the other hand, climate change is causing glaciers to melt and land to thaw, and many wetlands and swampy areas are being drained. It should not be forgotten that epidemiological and epizootic threats significantly affect the country's economic development. The Covid-19 epidemic best illustrates these threats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthrax is a notorious disease of public health importance caused by Bacillus anthracis. The causative agent can also be used as a biological weapon. Spores of these bacteria can sustain extreme environmental conditions and remain viable in soil for decades. Domestic and wild ruminants are highly susceptible to this pathogen, which usually presents as a peracute to acute disease. In humans, cutaneous anthrax is frequent but pulmonary and enteric anthrax are more serious. Humans, animals, and the environment are all involved, making anthrax a perfect target for a One Health approach. The environment plays a key role in disease transmission. At a time when the One Health concept is not mere slogans, collaborative efforts of medical professionals, veterinarians, and environmental scientists will be valuable for the prevention and control of this disease. In this review, we discussed the transmission dynamics of anthrax in the environment, animals, and humans, as well as One Health strategies to control and prevent anthrax.

Urbanization and population density in the city of Pleven create the conditions for anthropogenic disasters involving modern hazards such as disease-causing microorganisms, toxins, dangerous chemicals, hazardous weapon substances, radiation, and nuclear explosions. The study was conducted under project No. 13/2022 at MU - Pleven, involving 240 foreign citizens from 31 countries. The participants were divided into two age groups: 18 to 25 years (64%) and 26 to 35 years (36%). Their duration of stay in Pleven was categorized into up to 5 years (54%) and over 5 years (46%). Interestingly, more than 50% of the participants had experienced more than one distress situation before. The study used a sociological method to examine the readiness to protect themselves during disasters. The results revealed alarmingly low levels of awareness regarding anthropogenic disasters or terrorist acts in the city of Pleven, with only 15% and 5% of respondents being aware of them, respectively. Furthermore, over 60% of the respondents did not know who organizes aid for the population during disasters. Both age groups demonstrated inadequate knowledge and preparedness in dealing with a biological weapon infection outbreak. About 53% of participants did not know what to do in case of danger, 75% were unaware of the emergency phone number during disasters, 56% could not provide first aid to victims, and 64% lacked knowledge of appropriate actions in the event of a terrorist act.

Tularemia remains an important zoonosis as well as primary pathogen of wild and domestic animals. It is caused by a small, aerobic, facultatively intracellular, Gram-negative coccobacillus, Francisella tularensis. The species consists of four recognized subspecies: F. tularensis subsp. tularensis (formerly type A), F. tularensis subsp. holarctica (formerly type B), F. tularensis subsp. mediasiatica and F. tularensis subsp. novicida. Although the organism is pathogenic to 190 animal species, clinical cases are associated mainly with lagomorphs and rodents. Tularemia can take multiple clinical forms depending on the portal of entry. It is plague-like and for humans the infectious dose is very low. The natural reservoirs are mice, muskrats, water rats, ground squirrels, voles and rabbits. In humans infection by F. tularensis occurs primarily after inadvertent exposure to infected wildlife species, most frequently rodents, hares, and rabbits. Transmission to animals and humans occurs through arthropod or insect vectors, via direct contact, by ingestion or by inhalation of aerosolized organisms. F. tularensis invades macrophages and spreads to regional lymph nodes causing inflammatory lesions resembling buboes encountered in plague. The organism disseminates throughout the body to the internal organs, reaching lungs, spleen, liver and kidneys. At the final, sepsis stage, the secretory changes develop, taking ulceroglandular form of tularemia. In sheep clinical signs include fever, rigid gait, diarrhea, frequent urination, weight loss, and difficulty breathing. In humans the ulceroglandular tularemia is the most common form of disease and usually occurs following a tick or deer fly bite or after handling of an infected animal. The most serious form is pulmonary and typhoid form of tularemia. Oropharyngeal form results from eating or drinking contaminated food or water. PCR, RT-PCR, a specific fluorescent antibody test or immunohistochemistry are safe and convenient methods for detection and identification of F. tularensis in clinical specimens. Serological tests (slide agglutination test, tube agglutination test, microagglutination test and ELISA), are useful for diagnosing human infection, but are of limited value in the more susceptible animal species that usually die before developing antibodies. The organism is considered as a serious potential bioterrorist threat and is classified as Category A select agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existence of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) weapons poses a significant problem in terms of possible proliferation of technologies and materials, despite international agreements and regulations. The role of military forces in operations can be to support counter-proliferation initiatives to prevent their acquisition, deployment, or employment. The article analyzes the current situation in the field of site exploitation under CBRN environments, with a specific focus on biological threats. It describes a current state and a research question, which is addressed on the basis of scenario analysis methodology. The result is a scenario for the activities of troops in CBRN environments, which illustrates the possible operational reality during the localization of biological sites, their characterization and exploitation. The following application part presents proposals for the division of phases of the exploitation process and a proposal for the determination of CBRN and medical specialists of the Czech Armed Forces as the implementation elements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Development and sharing of model approaches to national science policies can enable States Parties to effectively raise awareness about the security dimensions of life science research and to promote research integrity and the responsible use of science, as well as enhancing accountability practices among practitioners and fostering access to emerging capabilities in science and technology. It is also important to incorporate convergent domains of scientific endeavors in biological and particularly computer and information sciences, upon which the life sciences increasingly depend. Indeed, the rapid development of science and technology may be outpacing necessary ethical and regulatory practices. Thus, governments and civil society often struggle to anticipate emerging capabilities and to identify and implement appropriate oversight mechanisms, particularly for activities that occur outside the direct oversight of government programs. However, these efforts are critical for public health and serve as an extremely powerful action to counter the use of biological weapons.

With five nuclear-weapon-free-zones (NWFZ) in place, the Middle East Zone (MEZ), still undergoing negotiations, is the first NWFZ to include “other weapons of mass destruction” in its deliberations. This article seeks to examine the historical necessity of including other weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) in the MEZ. It does so by first stressing the destructive and lingering consequences of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons against human populations and the environment. It then provides an overview of the concepts of NWFZs and zones free from other WMDs while stressing the importance of understanding the historical context surrounding these concepts. After establishing these concepts, the article discusses the historical necessity of including other WMDs in addition to nuclear weapons in NWFZ treaties by exploring case studies of the use of these weapons and their consequences. By presenting these case studies, the article demonstrates the necessity of including other WMDs by adding a human face to the consequences of not including other WMDs within the MEZ.

Amaç: Yeni tip Koronavirüs (COVID-19) 2019 yılının Aralık ayında Çin’in Wuhan kentinde ortaya çıkmıştır. 2020 yılında tüm dünyayı etkisi altına alan ve hızla yayılan koronavirüs, milyonlarca kişinin hayatını kaybetmesinin yanı sıra ekonomik ve psiko-sosyal sorunlara neden olmuştur. Ülkeler ve organizasyonlar bir yandan virüsün yayılmasını ve insanlara olan etkilerini azaltmak için tedbirler alırken, bir yandan da ani bir şekilde ortaya çıkan ve hızla yayılan bir pandemi karşısında hazırlıksız yakalanmışlardır. İnsanlar pandemi nedeniyle bu süreçte kendilerini ve ailelerini korumak amacıyla genel tedbirlere uymaya özen gösterirken, bir yandan da dünya genelinde gerek sosyal yaşamda gerek ekonomik yaşamda gerçekleşen değişikliklere şahitlik etmektedir. Bu nedenle insanların yeni tip koronavirüs ve kaynağı hakkındaki düşünceleri, maske ve sosyal mesafe gibi virüsten korunmaya yönelik tedbirler hakkındaki düşünceleri ve aşıya karşı yaklaşımlarına ilişkin düşünceleri önem arz etmektedir. Bu çalışmada Çorum ilinde yaşayan bireylerin koronavirüsün biyolojik bir silah olup olmadığı teorisi hakkındaki düşüncelerinin kapsamlı bir analizinin yapılması amaçlanmıştır. Gereç ve yöntem: Çorum ilinde yaşayan bireylerin konu hakkındaki düşünceleri anket yöntemiyle elde edilmiş ve veriler istatistiksel olarak analiz edilmiştir. Bulgular: Çalışmaya toplam 640 kişi katılmıştır. Katılımcıların yaklaşık %61’i koronovirüsün biyolojik bir silah olduğunu düşünmektedir. Araştırmaya katılanların eğitim durumu, meslekleri ve gelir durumu ile COVID-19’un biyolojik silah olup olmadığı düşünceleri arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı ilişki bulunmuştur (P=0,001; P=0,004; P lt;0,001; P=0,001; P lt;0,001; P=0,022). Katılımcıların cinsiyeti, medeni durumu ve yaşadığı yer ile COVID-19’un biyolojik silah olup olmadığı düşünceleri arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı ilişki bulunamamıştır (p gt;0,05). Sonuç: Koronavirüs Ebola, MERS ve SARS gibi ciddi salgın hastalıklara neden olan virüs ailelerine benzemektedir.

Introduction and objective The aim of the study was to analyze available literature on the development of biological warfare and combating the SARS CoV-2 pandemic. Against the background of contemporary threats from biological factors, the strengths and weaknesses of response in the event of a bioterrorist attack during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic have been identified. The scope and importance of international cooperation in the fight against the pandemic is assessed. Review methods The more important literature on bioterrorism, biological weapons and the COVID-19 pandemic, both from earlier work and recent publications, was analyzed, emphasizing new threats and adequate defence against them. Brief description of the state of knowledge The bio-warfare threat and the current COVID 19 pandemic that has hit mankind on a global scale has clearly shown how dangerous biological agents are and what effects they can cause, negatively affecting every sphere of human activity with catastrophic consequences. Data on examples of bioterrorist attacks carried out and research on the development of biological weapons and methods of combating pandemic COVID-19, were reviewed. New threats related to technological development,including those resulting from genetic manipulation, biosynthesis, and modern means of delivery, are pointed out. Attention has been paid to the implications of controlling the proliferation of biological weapons and the issues of international cooperation in the fight against bioterrorism and the COVD-19 pandemic. Summary The lesson learned clearly demonstrates the weakness of states in responding to such threats. The risks of uncontrolled scientific advances are still underestimated. Appropriate international control measures must be taken urgently to prepare for new pandemics, bioterrorist attacks, and the possibility of using modern biological weapons.

In November 2019, a new series of annual one-week meetings began to eliminate non-conventional arms – essentially nuclear weapons, and to a lesser extent chemical and biological weapons (CBW) – from the arsenals in the Middle East. It followed the acceptance of Egypt’s proposal for a new conference by the First Committee of the UN General Assembly on 22 December 2018. The new Conference derives its mandate from the Resolution on the Middle East, adopted at the 1995 Review Conference of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Besides expanding the original idea of a Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone (NWFZ) to one that would also cover CBW, it also requires the regional disarmament initiative to be verifiable. This enlarged scope for regional disarmament in the Middle East presents significant challenges for the negotiating parties. While the NWFZ primarily addressed security relationships with Israel, chemical weapons and their past and present use in the Middle East affect other regional fault lines. This article traces how CBW were inserted into the objective of a NWFZ for the Middle East. It then discusses the legal regimes governing CBW, their status in the region and implications for a regional zone exempt from non-conventional weaponry. The demand for effective verification poses multiple challenges because of the processes in the CBW disarmament treaties. The paper finally discusses steps the Conference could consider for building trust and confidence while negotiating the regional treaty framework.

Due to still current biological threats related to the activities of terrorist groups, crisis situations in many regions of the world, as well as cyclical epidemics, fast and reliable detection of biological contamina-tion is an essential element of ensuring broadly understood safety of the population. The work deals with the sampling and verification procedures. This paper focuses on sample preparation techniques for analysis and details analytical methods for identifying biological agents. Additionally, on-site technologies implemented in military devices for the detection of biological contamination were discussed. The work enables the reader to get acquainted with modern techniques of detection of factors of biological origin and their identification, which is the knowledge necessary when choosing the appropriate equipment depending on the purpose of the contamination recognition sub-unit and the task at hand. Knowledge of sam-pling and preparation of samples for analysis will help to increase the skills of the sampling teams to do so and to achieve reliable results by using appropriate procedures and eliminating the possibility of loss of the analyte or inadvertent contamination of the sample. It will also increase safety at every stage of working with biological samples. All these activities can contribute to the global increase in security of the population around the world. Keywords: chemical sciences, biological weapon, bioterrorism, CBRN, PCR, UV-LIF

Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) weapons still represent a relevant threat despite international treaties and regulations. International projects like the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) of European Union (EU) appears as a suitable way of the further development when considered both complexity and expensiveness of the countermeasures to the CBRN. In this work, basic principles of PESCO, limitations, opportunities and expected directions of innovations were searched. The final recommendations on PESCO projects in the CBRN field are founded on the reached findings. Recommendations and conclusions on limited PESCO efficacy on one side and opportunity to resolve weakness of the Army of the Czech Republic (AČR) in the CBRN by collaboration in the EU on the other were particularly described in this paper. Without the collaboration, the AČR will hardly reflect the progress on CBRN defense.

Biological attack or bioterrorism is one of the sides to cause disease or death in all living things by using biological causative agents of disease due to reasons such as political, ideological and economic. There were many biological attacks from the primitive ages when poisoned arrows were used to the use of anthrax spores in 2001 against USA. Although chemical attacks are not as deep-rooted as biological attacks, they have been used for a long time, but the period when they came to the stage of history was the 19th century with the development of the modern chemical industry. Chemical attacks caused injuries, permanent damage and death to many people especially during the period of World wars. The pandemic that can be caused by natural epidemic diseases is the spread of a factor or disease in a very wide area. With the spread of disease; panic, unrest and chaos environment occurs in the spreading area. Coronavirus (Covid-19), which causes the current pandemic, is the most recent example. Coronavirus out broke in Wuhan, China, and started to spread in China first, and then Iran, and had an impact on Italy as well as European continent and around the world with the American continent. It infected millions of people, hundreds of thousands of people died, and caused environmental, social, psychological and economic problems on a global scale. Recently, different pandemic processes related to influenza have been experienced, but states have not been able to demonstrate an effective and efficient defense against the new type of coronavirus since the necessary preparations were not made despite the death of millions of people. Since biological attack and natural epidemics have the same effects and characteristics, it is not possible to predict how the states will respond in a possible biological attack. As in the current pandemic process, the possible consequences that will arise when caught unprepared are doubtful. In this study, it is evaluated how biological agents and natural epidemics are similar to each other and how to take measures against a possible attack or a new disaster. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyberbiosecurity has emerged as a new field combining cybersecurity and biosecurity. The convergence of cybersecurity and biosecurity can potentially impact the digital operations of enterprises in a variety of industries, including agriculture, manufacturing, and healthcare. This systematic review summarizes and synthesizes research on the increasing importance of cyber-biosecurity threats and the importance of cyber-biosecurity measures in combating the misuse of cyberspace and bioscience technology. The author performed three distinct searches through ProQuest, Web of Science, and MEDLINE databases. The author used keywords to identify 15 articles that met the systematic review’s purpose. Analysis of the 15 articles revealed that the intersection of current advancements in biosciences with conventional cyberspace security risks has promoted the awareness and discovery of threats in the cyberbiosecurity field. The author concludes that cybersecurity is the foremost biological weapon to the digital world when challenged by new technologies and security threats. As a result, cyberbiosecurity measures must safeguard the bioeconomy and address the possibility for or actual misuse of critical information, materials, and systems at the convergence of biosciences and cyberspace. Stakeholders interested in cyberbiosecurity outcomes need to be competent in its implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following the 2001 end to negotiations on a legally binding protocol, states parties to the 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) developed entrenched positions about the necessity of treaty verification, hindering progress on treaty aims. The study described in this article was designed to facilitate dialogue on verification-related issues outside the context of those positions, using the term "assurance" to represent the degree of certainty that states parties are meeting their treaty obligations. From August 2020 to July 2021, the researchers conducted 36 interviews—16 with state-party delegations and 20 with independent experts, representing 20 countries. They performed mixed-methods analysis on the interviews, including quantitative metrics on qualitative interview content. Interviewees' views on verification, compliance, and related concepts varied widely. Future efforts by states parties to achieve common understanding on these topics could facilitate concrete progress. While no single mechanism is sufficient to achieve verification or assess compliance, packages of mechanisms could increase assurance. Interviewees expressed general support for implementing assurance mechanisms, even in the absence of a comprehensive, legally binding protocol or verification regime, even among states parties for which that is the primary goal. Avenues to increase assurance among BWC stakeholders merit further discussion in the current intersessional program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction and Objective. The aim of the study was to analyze available literature on the development of biological warfare and combating the SARS CoV-2 pandemic. Against the background of contemporary threats from biological factors, the strengths and weaknesses of response in the event of a bioterrorist attack during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic have been identified. The scope and importance of international cooperation in the fight against the pandemic is assessed. Review methods. The more important literature on bioterrorism, biological weapons and the COVID-19 pandemic, both from earlier work and recent publications, was analyzed, emphasizing new threats and adequate defence against them. Brief description of the state of knowledge. The bio-warfare threat and the current COVID 19 pandemic that has hit mankind on a global scale has clearly shown how dangerous biological agents are and what effects they can cause, negatively affecting every sphere of human activity with catastrophic consequences. Data on examples of bioterrorist attacks carried out and research on the development of biological weapons and methods of combating pandemic COVID-19, were reviewed. New threats related to technological development, including those resulting from genetic manipulation, biosynthesis, and modern means of delivery, are pointed out. Attention has been paid to the implications of controlling the proliferation of biological weapons and the issues of international cooperation in the fight against bioterrorism and the COVD-19 pandemic. Summary. The lesson learned clearly demonstrates the weakness of states in responding to such threats. The risks of uncontrolled scientific advances are still underestimated. Appropriate international control measures must be taken urgently to prepare for new pandemics, bioterrorist attacks, and the possibility of using modern biological weapons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Biological weapons are one of the oldest weapons of mass destruction used by man. Their use has not only determined the outcome of battles, but also influenced the fate of entire civilizations. Although the use of biological weapons agents in a terrorist attack is currently unlikely, all services responsible for the surveillance and removal of epidemiological threats must have clear guidelines and emergency response plans. Methods: In the face of the numerous threats appearing in the world, it has become necessary to put the main emphasis on modernizing, securing, and maintaining structures in the field of medicine which are prepared for unforeseen crises and situations related to the use of biological agents. Results: This article presents Poland's current preparation to take action in the event of a bioterrorist threat. The study presents both the military aspect and procedures for dealing with contamination. Conclusions: In Poland, as in other European Union countries fighting terrorism, preparations should be made to defend against biological attacks, improve the flow of information on the European security system, strengthen research centers, train staff, create observation units and vaccination centers, as well as prepare hospitals for the hospitalization of patients—potential victims of bioterrorist attacks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Category A agents are biological pathogens that could pose a threat to health and human safety if used as bioweapons. The exploration and possibility of these threats must be comprehensively reviewed to create a preparedness plan to recognize outbreaks, to educate the public, and to offer vaccinations and/or treatment options, if available. A scoping review using PRISMA guidelines was performed to categorize current information on Category A biological agents as well as understand their potential for future threats. The results used 34 articles and found that while botulin neurotoxins were the most lethal, anthrax posed the most likely threat for use as a bioweapon. Most research was conducted on plague, though it is not the most likely threat. Smallpox is the most likely agent to vaccinate against as there is already a working vaccine that has proven effective and the issue at hand is the need for a larger stockpile. Ultimately, preparedness efforts should include vaccinations and continued research and development of them. Category A agents are a serious public health concern; updated and reformed bioterrorism preparedness plans could greatly minimize panic and mortality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of biological weapons (BW) by the American army during the war on the Korean Peninsula (25.06.1950–27.07.1953) is an almost forgotten episode in the military history of the twentieth century. After the appearance of the first reports about the outbreak of biological warfare, the World Peace Council, at the initiative of the PRC, appointed the special International Scientific Commission for the Investigation of the Facts Concerning Bacterial Warfare in Korea and China (hereinafter – the Commission), which in 1952 prepared the «Report of the International Scientific Commission for the Investigation of the Facts Concerning Bacterial Warfare in Korea and China», (hereinafter – Report). The report has been repeatedly criticized for being prepared by the communists. However, the analysis of this document revealed that there remained a large amount of information that has never been criticized and remained unrefuted by anyone to date. This information is the main subject of our analysis. The purpose of this work is to show how biological warfare has been conducted during the hostilities on the Korean Peninsula in 1952. During the war, the Americans studied the effectiveness of various types of biological munitions: improved Japanese munitions (spreading infected insects and animals), special aerial bombs designed to spray liquid bacterial formulations. Combat aircraft equipped with aerosol generators were used for the first time to spray dry formulations. Water sources have been intentionally infected with pathogens of dangerous diseases. Outbreaks of plague, anthrax, cholera, dysentery and probably other infections have been caused artificially among the Korean and Chinese population. In the United States, many ideas about BW, based on the analysis of the Japanese experience and on their own field experiments in the 1940s, have been revised after the Korean War. The creation of the ammunition for the dissemination of fine aerosols and blood-sucking insects became the main direction of the development of the American BW. The report itself is the first attempt to create a new section of epidemiology – «abnormal epidemiology», i.e. the systems of scientific knowledge that allows the experts to recognize the artificial outbreaks (epidemics) of infectious diseases. Unfortunately, after the war the report was not properly evaluated. It was forgotten for political reasons. Therefore, the work on the creation of this section of epidemiology should be continued on the basis of new knowledge about contemporary biological threats.

Bacillus anthracis is a causative agent of the highly mortal disease anthrax. This zoonosis is present in nature, but it is also considered one of the most powerful biological warfare agents. A timely diagnosis is necessary for proper therapy and setting of epidemiological countermeasures. Current diagnostic methods should be used in specialized laboratories or medical facilities because there are only a limited number of methods suitable as hand-held assays or even point-of-care tests for detecting B. anthracis or anthrax diagnosis. The lateral flow tests are an exception in this regard, but these tests also have some limitations. Significant progress has been achieved in point-of-care tests for B. anthracis detection and anthrax diagnosis in various biosensors and bioassays. This review focuses on current hand-held and point-of-care tests that can easily prove anthrax or its causative agent outside the context of specialized facilities., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)

This article is devoted to forensic research of the damage circumstances by pathogenic microorganisms in the environment after a terrorist attack. The topic is relevant in that it has not yet been studied in forensic such notions as “especially dangerous infections”, “biological agents”, “bacteriological weapons”, “biological weapons”, “pathogenicity”, “contagious properties”, etc. were not considered in the literature. In forensic science, the properties of biological agents of biological weapons developed to date, the mechanism and nature of trace formation in the material situation where a terrorist act can be committed using these means are not systematized. The issues of technical and forensic support for conducting investigative actions were not considered, for example, when inspecting the scene of an incident, if an act of terrorism was committed, there are no recommendations on the tactical features of investigating this category of crimes, and the specialists are not known in what procedural form. Specialists should be established to prove the guilt of the terrorist (s), and other issues are not developed as well. of terrorism. The purpose of research, based on the properties of pathogenic microorganisms of natural origin and biological agents for creating biological weapons, their existing classification by degree of pathogenicity, method of penetration, etc., to identify the main properties of these microorganisms in the forensic aspect, systematize them to determine the tactics of the investigation at the initial stage of the investigation. Scientific works of microbiologists, virologists, biologists, epidemiologists and military epidemiologists devoted to the biological agents and the weapon, the methods of indication of bacteriological materials, also the works of criminologists devoted to the theory and practice of investigating special types of crime served as a basis to this article.

Development and sharing of model approaches to national science policies can enable States Parties to effectively raise awareness about the security dimensions of life science research and to promote research integrity and the responsible use of science, as well as enhancing accountability practices among practitioners and fostering access to emerging capabilities in science and technology. It is also important to incorporate convergent domains of scientific endeavors in biological and particularly computer and information sciences, upon which the life sciences increasingly depend. Indeed, the rapid development of science and technology may be outpacing necessary ethical and regulatory practices. Thus, governments and civil society often struggle to anticipate emerging capabilities and to identify and implement appropriate oversight mechanisms, particularly for activities that occur outside the direct oversight of government programs. However, these efforts are critical for public health and serve as an extremely powerful action to counter the use of biological weapons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Botulinum toxin is nowadays approved as an effective medication for various neurological disorders. The extreme toxicity of this toxin-inducing botulism, a severe lethal muscle-paralyzing illness, has been well known since the seminal works of the end of the 19th century. Because of this toxicity, botulinum toxin was one of the first agents to be considered for use as a biological weapon. The Second World War was a crucial period for the first attempts to weaponize this toxin even if many unknown factors about botulinum toxin still existed at the outbreak of the war. Using documents from the British National Archives and other published sources, we discuss the main points of the attempts to weaponize this toxin in German and Allied armies. During WW2, Allied intelligence services regularly reported a major German threat related to the potential use of botulinum toxin as a biological weapon, especially during the preparation of Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion to liberate Europe. All these reports would ultimately prove to be inaccurate: botulinum toxin was not part of the German military arsenal even if some German scientists tried to use the results of the French pre-war military research. Misinformation spread by intelligence services stimulated military research at Porton Down facilities in England and at Camp Detrick in the USA. These studies led to a succession of failures and myths about the weaponization of botulinum toxin. Nevertheless, major progress (purification, toxoid) arose from the military research, providing useful data for the first steps of the therapeutic use of botulinum toxin in the post-war years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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AIM: Bacillus anthracis is a causative agent of zoonotic anthrax disease. In the last years, significant progress in therapy and diagnosis of anthrax was made. Concurrently, knowledge about anthrax progression, molecular pathology and release of anthrax toxin during the disease has improved. This review covers the recent progress in this fi eld. METHODS: In this review, specifications of B. anthracis, anthrax disease, medical and biomedical countermeasures and diagnostic tools were surveyed. The actual literature was summarized and relevance of the microorganism as a biological warfare agent and the ways how to reduce its impact including therapeutic protocols were written and discussed. RESULTS: Currently, the microorganism is considered one of the top biological warfare agents due to lethality, long term stability of spores, easy dissemination and production. The recent research is focused on countermeasures suitable for reduction of consequences by a misuse of the microorganism in form of biological weapon (Tab. 3, Fig. 1, Ref. 101). Text in PDF www.elis.sk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioterrorism is one of the many forms of terrorism that uses pathogens to impute panic and disorder. History has shown that the man from an early has learned that sickness causes not only death but also chaos and destabilization. This literature review was the result of research based on scientific articles, books and electronic archives with the main objective of reporting on bioterrorism in the world, its history, the microorganisms involved, their mechanisms of action, as well as the main prophylaxis and therapies related to them. Bacteria such as Bacillus anthracis and Yersinia pestis as well as Orthopoxvirus variolae, bacteria and viruses that cause anthrax, plague and smallpox respectively, are examples of organisms that can be employed in a biological terrorist action. Although bioterrorism is an issue and a worrying reality, the development of protocols and policies against this type of threat is difficult, probably caused by the lack of disclosure of the real risks of a bioterrorist action and also the extent of the problem, the difficulty in tracking, preventing and combating this type of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims at presenting Nipah virus (NiV), which is becoming a serious threat for animal breeding, as a zoonotic agent and as a potential biological weapon. Nipah virus is a paramyxovirus, genus Henipavirus, whose reservoir host are is fruit bats of the genus Pteropus. The virus can cause severe respiratory disease in resulting in significant economic losses, and also in other animals: horses, cattle, and in cats and dogs. Clinical signs in pigs vary, depending on the age and the individual response to the virus. In general, mortality is low, except in piglets. however, morbidity is high in all age groups. If an outbreak is suspected, the animal premises should be quarantined immediately. Culling of animals with respiratory signs and the close supervision of burial or incineration of carcasses may be necessary to reduce the risk of NiV transmission to people. Restricting or banning the movement of animals from infected farms to other areas can reduce the spread of the disease. The Nipah virus can be transmitted to humans from bats or pigs or from contaminated foods. It can also be transmitted directly between humans. Resulting severe illness is characterized by encephalitis and/or respiratory disease and fatality rate is estimated at 40% to 75%. There is one vaccine available for both people and animals. The NiV to be considered as potential agent of bioterrorism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Staphylococcus aureus is a causative agent of infectious diseases and a producer of a group of highly toxic proteins called Staphylococcal enterotoxins. Currently, the presence of S. aureus in a sample can be determined by a wide spectrum of genetic, immunochemical and microbiological techniques. Despite availability of standard methods and devices, they are not fully suitable for a simple, label-free mode of use by an unskilled worker. In this paper, a biosensor based on quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensor is performed as a tool for a simple and reliable determination of S. aureus. The biosensor contained an antibody specific to S. aureus immobilized through protein A on 10 MHz QCM sensors and the interdigitated layer was stabilized by iron nanoparticles. The assay was performed as label free and sample was applied without any pretreatment. Limit of detection 145 µg/ml (5.18 × 108 CFU/ml) was achieved. When considered standard size of a sample 50 μl, the limit of detection was equal to 7.25 μg (2.59 × 107 CFU). The biosensors kept more than 90% sensitivity to the analyte after storage in laboratory conditions for 90 days. Good correlation to standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was also proved. The biosensor appears as a simple but reliable tool for S. aureus assay and the QCM platform would provide further applications in microbial analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]