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Counterfeiting or forged imitation of banknotes is a perpetual practice engulfing global economies. This not only poses challenges for the material scientists to come forth with advanced security materials but also demands veracious forensic examination to detect counterfeits. The present article pursues novel efforts in summarizing a study that lays focus on the recent optical and analytical examinations being used for the characterization and detection of chemical profiles of authentic and counterfeited banknotes. The article briefs the trends in banknote materials, security paper manufacturing process, security inks used for printing, and types of the security printing process in banknote practices. Reported literature shows the introduction of new anti-counterfeiting materials viz. magnetically-responsive photonic anti-counterfeiting watermarks, and fluorescent nanoparticles that can be used as anti-counterfeiting inks, anti-stokes inks, metameric inks, etc. Analytical techniques such as IR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, Mossbauer spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, LIBS, XRF, ELDI-MS, EASI/DESI-MS, HPLC, VSC, AFM, etc. in conjunction with different chemometrics approaches have been critically discussed. The study also presents the future scope in banknote examination like the use of hyper spectral imaging and sensor-based counterfeit detection systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Turkey's 2009 series of banknotes feature six eminent scholarly figures, with at least two of interest to a mathematical audience. We lay these mathematicians within a historical context, and provide a short summary of how they have contributed to the country's promotion and revival of scientific knowledge. Such campaigns lead to an increased awareness for both mathematics and mathematicians in the general audience, and can also be an effective strategy in boosting public opinion of the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing organisms are widely recognized as clinically relevant causes of difficult-to-treat infections. CTX-M has formed a rapidly growing family distributed worldwide among a wide range of clinical bacteria, particularly members of Enterobacteriaceae. Circulating banknotes, exchanged daily among people, pose a potential vehicle for transmitting multidrug resistance. We screened for ESBL-carrying bacteria in the present study and reported CTX-M mutations in Bangladesh's banknotes. We sequenced the genes and performed homology modeling using the Swiss model with CTX-M-15 (4HBT) as a template. Then, we performed molecular docking of mecillinam with the template and the generated model using Autodock 4.2 (Release 4.2.6). After docking, we visually inspected the complexes built using Autodock tools for polar contacts and pi-pi interactions in PyMOL 2.5.4. Our partially sequenced bla CTX-M was related to bla CTX-M-10 and bla CTX-M-15. We observed multiple single-nucleotide substitution mutations, i.e., G613T (silent mutation), A626T (I176F), and A503G (N135D). Homology modeling showed high similarity when the model was superimposed over the template. The orientation of Asn (135) in the template and Asp (135) in the model does not show a significant difference. Likewise, Ile (176) in the template and Phe (176) in the model offer the same orientation. Our generated model could bind to Lys237, Ser240, and Asp135 residues with the lowest binding energy on docking. Our predicted binding of the mecillinam to the mutated D-135 residue in the model indicates contributions and supports previous reports proposing CTX-M-15 to CTX-M-127 mutational conversion on the mecillinum resistance phenotype.

We consider the debut of a new monetary instrument, central bank digital currencies (CBDCs). Drawing on examples from monetary history, we argue that a successful monetary transformation must combine microeconomic efficiency with macroeconomic credibility. A paradoxical feature of these transformations is that success in the micro dimension can encourage macro failure. Overcoming this paradox may require politically uncomfortable compromises. We propose that such compromises will be necessary for the success of CBDCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we explain that paper money is a means of collecting government taxes and creating a budget, and since companies and individuals pay taxes on their labor income, they use it to buy labor, goods, and services. A large percentage of taxes are levied on the salaries and profits of individuals and companies, which always leads to a shortage of money. Therefore, most of the population is made up of poor and low-income citizens. Since paper money has no value, merchants raise the prices of goods and commodities for super profits, and by increasing the value of paper money, they stimulate today's inflation and open a great opportunity for the government to pay off its debts. Another problem is that the US dollar becomes an international reserve currency that is used to control one country's international trade, to devalue some countries' national currencies and thus to pressure and destroy their economies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research addresses the issue of discrepancies in the exchange of the old and new Yemeni currency in light of the political division in Yemen. This research is of great importance since it sheds light on an issue that has arisen due to the political reality taking place today in Yemen. There is a dire need to clarify the legal stand regarding this issue. The research aims to know the rules that govern the exchange of currency with its similar and different currency in Islamic jurisprudence. The researcher used the inductive descriptive analytical method. The study consists of an introduction that deals with the concept of exchange and its ruling, and two other sections. The first section includes banknotes, their reality and ruling, while the second section deals with explaining the ruling on the discrepancy in the exchange of the old and new Yemeni currency. The research concludes several results, among them: the old and new Yemeni currency are only one type, and it is forbidden to differentiate between them, and the legal way is to sell each type of the old and new editions in the currency of another country and then dispose it in any other currency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the prevention of infectious diseases, knowledge about potential transmission routes is essential. Pathogens can be transmitted directly (i.e. respiratory droplets, hand‐to‐hand contact) or indirectly via contaminated surfaces (fomites). In particular, frequently touched objects/surfaces may serve as transmission vehicles for different clinically relevant bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. Banknotes and coins offer ample surface area and are frequently exchanged between individuals. Consequently, many concerns have been raised in the recent past, that banknotes and coins could serve as vectors for the transmission of disease‐causing microorganisms. This review summarizes the latest research on the potential of paper currency and coins to serve as sources of pathogenic viral, bacterial, and fungal agents. In contrast to the current perception of banknotes and coins as important transmission vehicles, current evidence suggests, that banknotes and coins do not pose a particular risk of pathogen infection for the public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the rise in digital payments has spurred discussion about the future of cash at the point of sale. The COVID-19 pandemic has also contributed to this discussion. To better understand cash acceptance and the impact of payment innovations such as mobile payments in Canada, the Bank of Canada conducted the 2021–22 Merchant Acceptance Survey Pilot Study — a survey of around 500 small and medium-sized businesses. We find that 97 per cent of small and medium-sized businesses in Canada accepted cash in 2021–22 and only 3 per cent have plans to stop accepting cash. For cards and digital payments, merchant acceptance has increased over the last few years. Therefore, cash and digital payments continue to co-exist at the point of sale, and Canada is far from being a cashless society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A banknote is a currency issued by a country, and it was first introduced in the 16th century. The counterfeiting of banknotes by cunning criminals became a great challenge with the current advanced technology. Forensic scientists are using chemical methods, such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for differentiating genuine and counterfeit banknotes. However, the FTIR spectra of banknotes may require further pattern recognition analysis due to their high similarities. In this paper, a fuzzy graph-based algorithm for authentication of the FTIR spectrum, namely chemometrics fuzzy autocatalytic set (c-FACS), is used to discriminate between genuine and counterfeit hundred Ringgit Malaysian (RM100) banknotes. The results show that the genuine and counterfeit RM100 banknotes have slightly distinct patterns when analyzed using c-FACS. In addition, the results are compared with RM50 banknotes, and the results reveal that the nodes or dominant axis varies between the two banknotes. To verify the reliability of the results, the results obtained via c-FACS are compared with principal component analysis (PCA). The c-FACS showed better performances as compared to PCA in terms of time consumption and observation. Thus, the c-FACS has the ability to assist forensic investigations involving banknote counterfeiting crimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article emphasizes the importance of forming a culture of financial literacy of the population as a necessary condition for creating a secure financial environment in the context of digitalization. The influence of banking technologies and digitalization on consumer behavior is analyzed and it is noted that consumer ignorance and insufficient digital literacy (low awareness of modern banking services in the market, mechanisms for purchasing goods and services through online platforms) limit consumer sovereignty. The experience of using various payment instruments in the national national market is considered. It is proved that a significant increase in non-cash payments stimulates the emergence of new banking services, which include junior bank cards as an effective financial product that solves the issue of security of money transfers and control over the status of the account (on the part of parents or guardians). On the basis of the expert method, the features of the use of junior cards and the level of financial literacy of consumers of this banking product are researched. It is emphasized that today the definition of priority directions, instruments and appropriate information support for the practical implementation of measures to improve financial literacy will provide an opportunity to increase the level of economic security of the State and strengthen the financial sovereignty of citizens. According to the results of the research, recommendations on the effectiveness of educational programs for the formation of financial literacy as a necessary competence in the context of digitalization and financial awareness as an important component of the formation of financial sovereignty of the consumer are suggested.

Günümüzde itibari para borçları ödenirken enflasyonun dikkate alınmasının gerekip gerekmediği hususunda görüş ayrılığı bulunmaktadır. Enflasyonun dikkate alınması gerektiği görüşünü savunanlar, çoğunlukla İmam Ebû Yûsuf’un fels borçlarında dirhem değeri üzerinden ödeme yapılması gerektiği yönündeki görüşünü kaynak göstermektedirler. Onlara göre günümüzdeki itibari paralar, felslerle aynı hükümdedir. Enflasyonun dikkate alınmasına karşı çıkanlar ise itibari paraların İmam Ebu Yusuf’un görüşünün kapsamına dahil edilemeyeceği kanaatindedirler. Tartışma büyük ölçüde günümüzdeki itibari paraların İmam Ebu Yusuf’un görüşünün kapsamına dahil olup olmadığı konusundaki belirsizlikten kaynaklanmaktadır. Dolayısıyla tartışmaya katkı sunabilmek için İmam Ebu Yusuf’un görüşünün illeti ve kapsamının ne olduğunu belirlemek büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu araştırmanın temel hedefi, İmam Ebu Yusuf’un görüşünün illetini tespit ederek görüşün kapsamını net bir biçimde ortaya koymaktır. Hedefin gerçekleştirilebilmesi amacıyla öncelikle klasik fıkıh literatüründe İmam Ebu Yusuf’un görüşünün kapsamıyla ilgili ortaya konulan görüşler ayrı ayrı incelenmiştir. Bu görüşler ışığında hükmün illetinin ve kapsamının ne olduğu ve son olarak günümüzdeki itibari paraların kapsama dahil edilip edilemeyeceği hakkında bir sonuca ulaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. İmam Ebû Yûsuf’un görüşünün borcun sebebi ve konusu bakımından kapsamı hakkında klasik dönemde çeşitli görüşler ortaya konulmuştur. Borcun sebebi bakımından kapsamı, Hanefi mezhebindeki hâkim kanaate göre satım akdi ve karzla sınırlıdır. Kimi çağdaş araştırmacıların tespitlerinin aksine, sebebi gasp ve itlaf olan borçlar, kapsama dahil değildir. Borcun konusu bakımından kapsamı, Ebussuûd el-Mısri gibi kimi Hanefî bilginlere göre, fels borçlarıyla sınırlıdır. İbn Âbidîn ise felslerin yanında bir de katkı oranı yüksek mağşuş paraların kapsama dahil olduğu görüşündedir. Bu itibarla başta Ömer Nasuhi Bilmen olmak üzere kimi çağdaş araştırmacıların veznî ve keylî mal borçlarının kapsama dahil olduğu yönündeki yaklaşımları isabetli değildir. İtibari paraları enflasyon konusunda felslerle aynı hükümde görenler, İmam Ebû Yûsuf tarafından diğer paralardan farklı olarak özellikle fels borçlarında dirhem değerinin dikkate alınmasının, felslerin para olarak yaratılmamış olmasından kaynaklandığını düşünmektedirler. Hâlbuki para olarak yaratılmamış olma özelliği, enflasyonun dikkate alınması gerektiği yönündeki hükme münasib olmadığı gibi hükme tesir eden bir vasıf da değildir. Nitekim hükme tesiri olsaydı, söz gelimi karz olarak verilen buğday borcunda ya da sebebi gasb olan fels borçlarında aynı hükmün geçerli olması gerekirdi. Fels borçlarında enflasyonun dikkate alınıp ödemenin dirhem değeri üzerinden yapılması, felslerin o dönemdeki asıl para birimi olan dirhemlerin küsuratını tamamlayan bozuk paralar olmalarından kaynaklanmaktadır. Bir başka ifadeyle fels borçlarında enflasyonun dikkate alınıp ödemenin dirhem değeri üzerinden yapılmasının sebebi, felslerin dirhem değeri üzerinden işlem gören yardımcı paralar olmalarıdır. Felslerin dirhemlerin küsuratını tamamlayan yardımcı para olarak kullanılmaları, onların dirhem değeri üzerinden işlem gördükleri tespitini yapmaya imkân vermektedir. Öte yandan İmam Ebû Yûsuf’a göre fels borçları ödenirken dinar ya da başka bir mal değerinin değil özellikle dirhem değerinin esas alınması, o dönemde felslerin dirhem değeri üzerinden işlem gördüğünü net bir biçimde göstermektedir. Belirlenen bu illet hükme münasib ve hükme tesir eden bir vasıf olduğu için fels borçlarında ödemenin neden dinar ya da başka bir mal değeri üzerinden değil de dirhem değeri üzerinden yapıldığı izah edilebilmekte ve karz olarak verilen buğday borçlarında ya da sebebi gasb olan fels borçlarında aynı hükmün geçerli olmamasının sebebi ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca birçok Hanefî fıkıh eserinde İmam Ebû Yûsuf’un görüşünden hiç söz edilmemesi, felslerin dönem dönem asli para birimi haline gelmesiyle izah edilebilmektedir. Günümüzde asli para birimi olarak kullanılan itibari para borçlarında enflasyonun dikkate alınması gerektiği görüşünü savunanların, İmam Ebû Yûsuf’un felslere özgü görüşünü kaynak göstermeleri isabetli değildir.

The present paper provides an overview on current developments of cash usage and issue of central bank digital currency (CBDC) in the euro area and proposes a possible design of a digital euro that allows for instant offline payments. Cash usage at the point-of- sale decreased perceptibly in the past years mainly due to the ongoing trend towards digitalization. However, we show that there are also indications that consumers were somewhat pushed into cashless payments by government regulations and supply-side restrictions by commercial banks. Nonetheless, overall demand for euro cash remained strong and even increased relative to GDP since the financial crisis in 2008. In this process, however, we observe a supply-driven shift towards lower banknote denominations. Central banks all over the world are intensively thinking about the potential issue of CBDC as a substitute or complement to cash. Based on some of its preferred characteristics, we propose a double pre-paid scheme combining central elements of TARGET Instant Payment Settlement and electronic money features enabling offline and online instant payments. Since anonymity is categorically discarded by the ECB and as cash has some special advantages from a consumer perspective, the digital euro will rather co-circulate with cash than replace it in transactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of research is the linguistic analysis of texts on banknotes: Czecho - slovak crown and the Soviet rouble. Inscriptions that appear in a language country are attributed two functions: communicative and symbolic. In our study, we will show that adding or removing texts on banknotes does not serve to inform users-- a linguistically „neutral", numerical value would suffice. The language on the banknotes plays a more symbolic role. We will make it clear that not only which languages are indicated on the banknotes, but also which are missing, some are removed. The use of different languages on banknotes shows a connection not with the results of censuses, but above all with territoriality, with the administration structured by historical traditions and political considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the role of specific types of crisis (technological crisis, financial market crisis, natural disaster) and their effects on the demand for cash in an international context. As evidence from the last 30 years shows, demand for cash increases during periods of crisis, regardless of the nature of the crisis. The nature of the crisis does, however, determine whether small or large banknote denominations are affected more. This study finds that times of payment uncertainties are associated with increased demand for small denominations, probably reflecting an elevated demand for transaction balances. By contrast, in times of financial crisis or general economic uncertainty, the increased demand for cash is largely the result of consumers taking precautionary actions and building up non-transaction balances; for this reason, there is greater demand for large banknote denominations. This study finds that cash continues to play an important role in crisis management. Whether this function can also be fulfilled by a future central bank digital currency, however, remains to be seen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Money is the most common item with which we have daily contact. Circulated banknotes and coins can become microbiologically contaminated and act as both a source and a means of spreading such pollutants. Material and methods The study was carried out in three money sorting facilities in Poland. Bioaerosol samples were collected using a 6-stage Andersen impactor, and microorganisms deposited on tabletop surfaces were sampled using the swab method. Bacterial and fungal concentrations were calculated and all isolated species were taxonomically identified. Results The study confirmed that means of payment are active sources of microbial emission in money sorting facilities. The bioaerosol concentrations did not exceed the threshold limit values proposed for this type of office premises. It confirms that ventilation systems in these facilities worked efficiently, protecting them from the migration of microbial contaminants present in both indoor and outdoor (atmospheric) background air. On the other hand, the average concentrations of bacteria and fungi on tabletop surfaces in banknote and coin sorting rooms were above the proposed purity levels for indoor surfaces and should be treated as microbiologically contaminated. Microbiota isolated from the air and surfaces were very diverse and among those strains were bacterial and fungal pathogens that can pose a health threat to exposed individuals. Conclusions The results showed that employees in money sorting facilities were exposed to microorganisms that may contribute to the development of adverse health outcomes. To protect them, highly efficient hygienic measures should be introduced in this working environment, to prevent both unwanted pollution and subsequent secondary emission of microbial contaminants from sorted means of payment and tabletop surfaces.

This study aims to investigate the role of Fintech in predicting the spread of COVID-19 based on consumers’ Fintech perceptions and behavior before and after the outbreak of COVID-19. The study used a questionnaire-based survey distributed in different countries of the world using the LinkedIn platform for this purpose to reach the targeted population. The snowball sampling technique was used. The study targeted consumers with Fintech experience, especially in digital payments services. 507 samples were retrieved. For the analysis, the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used. The study revealed novel results in predicting COVID-19 spread; these three variables (Fintech Behavior before COVID-19, Fintech Behavior after COVID-19, and Fintech Perception after COVID-19) could predict 52.5% of the variance in the dependent variable (COVID-19 Spread) (R² = 0.525, p < 0.05). The findings show that Higher Fintech perception and behavior among Fintech users will help in reducing the spread of COVID-19 by avoiding the use of contact payment methods. Contactless payment methods are the main tools in Fintech that might help in avoiding the probability of COVID-19 spread. Consumers’ Fintech perceptions and behavior are the most influencing factors that could predict the spread of COVID-19 in this study, where digital payments are the main concern. It is recommended that consumers adopt digital payment methods and tools, especially contactless payment methods, to fulfill their financial services. Other researchers are also encouraged to use the same model to predict the spread of this virus in the Fintech context.

Background: To date, there have been no reports on the occurrence of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) organisms (nor tuberculosis [TB]) on money, currency, banknotes, or coins, where these may act as fomites in the potential transmission of mycobacterial organisms around communities, especially in developing nations, where physical currency is still the popular mainstay of the economy, compared to electronic and digital forms of currency transaction. It was therefore the aim of this study to examine the survival of the Mycobacterium abscessus complex organisms on coins. Methods: Coins from 17 countries were examined for the presence of M. abscessus complex organisms by broth enrichment in Middlebrook 7H9 for 2 months. Nickel-plated steel and copper-plated steel coins were artificially contaminated individually with M. abscessus complex (circa 107 [7 log10] organisms/coin), including M. abscessus subsp. massiliense (n = 2), M. abscessus subsp. bolletti (n = 2), and M. abscessus subsp. abscessus (n = 1) and their surviving cells enumerated at weekly period up to 5-week postinoculation. Results: NTM organisms were not isolated from coins from the 17 currencies examined. In all three subspecies of M. abscessus, the copper-plated steel coins caused a more rapid decline in organism numbers, which were statistically very significant (P < 0.0001), compared to the paired survival on the nickel-plated steel coins, whereby organisms were none detectable after 3-week storage on the copper-plated coins. NTM organisms survived better on the nickel-plated coins, with a mean count across all subspecies of log10 1.84 colony forming units per coin after 5 weeks of storage (range: 0.6–2.69 log10 cfu/coin). There was no statistically significant difference (P > 0.05; 5%) in the survival dynamics among the three subspecies with storage on either coin type. Conclusions: Health-care professionals should be aware of the survival of M. abscessus complex organisms on coins for up to 12 weeks, which may be particular relevant in high-risk areas of health-care institutions where TB or NTM is prevalent and where there are opportunities for the transmission of such organisms through contaminated fomites, including coins, through opportunities including payment for treatments/medicines/dressings, coin-operated payment facilities, such as hospital car parking, self-service vending machines, hospital canteens, coffee shops and dining halls and hospital shops, whether static or mobile onward visits. To mitigate potential infection consequences of handling coins contaminated with M. abscessus complex organisms, other NTMs organisms and TB, the authors support re-establishing the principles of basic hygiene, including proper handwashing and the avoidance of handling money when working with food or dressing wounds and skin lesions, as well as when working with respiratory devices, including nebulizers.

The present study was identified the type of bacterial contamination of Iraqi banknotes currency (Iraqi dinars) in circulation. 68 Iraqi banknotes currency of different denominations samples were randomly gathered from different locations and different occupational groups in Baghdad city. The results showed 61 (89.70%) of the samples were determined to be contaminated with bacteria, whereas 7 (10.29%) were confirmed to be sterile. A total of 11 different species of bacteria resulting in 72 isolates were found from those 61 contaminated Iraqi banknotes currency. Based on culture, morphological and biochemical tests, 11 isolates were identified as Bacillus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Corynebacterium diphtheria, Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, Klebsiella, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus and Shigella sp. The results showed that Bacillus sp. 30.55 % was found to be the most frequently isolated bacterial species followed by Klebsiella 18.05%, Staphylococcus aureus 16.66%, Staphylococcus epidermidis 8.33%, Corynebacterium diphtheria, Leuconostoc 5.55%, Lactobacillus 4.16%, followed by streptococcus, Proteus mirabilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were detected in similar percentage 2.77% and Shigella sp. 1.38%.Significantly higher bacterial concentration was noticed in Iraqi dinars obtained from fish sellers (26.38%) than in other sources, whereas they were significantly lower in Iraqi dinars sampled from banks (6.9%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, much of the scholarly literature on anti-foreign boycotts in prewar China focused on cigarettes. However, foreign banks were also targeted, particularly regarding their most visible infringement of Chinese sovereignty: banknotes. Piecing together note circulation data on the smaller European and American banks operating in Shanghai is a work in progress. In this research note, I present provisional data about three of the most important second-tier foreign banks in Shanghai: the Netherlands Trading Society, the German Deutsch-Asiatische Bank and the International Banking Corporation. Tentative conclusions can already be drawn. These banks by and large lost traction in the 1930s insofar as banknote circulation volumes were concerned. On the other hand, the political vacuum that befell the Chinese market following the downfall of the Qing was the single biggest boon of the banks under review. The redemption freeze on Chinese bank notes of 1916 seems to have had a partial effect in terms of regaining Chinese trust in Chinese banknotes at the expense of foreign ones. Unlike British banks, Netherlands Trading Society circulation figures never recovered in the early 1920s. Needless to say, much more work can be carried out in that regard as the pertinent archives are situated right around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quality of banknotes in circulation is important for cash cycles. Central banks continuously try to find new methods for improving the quality of banknotes in circulation, whether by improving the specification of the banknotes or the characteristics of the cash cycle. The way that banknotes deteriorate and the speed with which they do so are some of the main factors affecting the quality of banknotes in circulation and thus, have been drawing the interest of central banks. This study develops a new semi-Markov chain model that could be used by banknote printing companies and central banks to model banknote deterioration. Discrete states of fitness are used in this semi-Markov model to simulate how the banknotes transit between fitness levels. The model requires some input parameters to simulate the cash cycle and present the probability distributions for each state. It is applied to theoretical cash cycles and a sensitivity analysis is performed to identify the parameters that have the greatest impact on the quality of banknotes. This study is the first to apply a semi-Markov model to estimate the lifetime of banknotes. It can be used as a forecasting tool for the proportion of unfit banknotes in circulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cryptocurrency is a virtual digital currency. The main reason for the popularity of digital currency is its decentralization and the peculiarities arising from it. Austrian economist and philosopher Friedrich August von Hayek In the 1970s, he became interested in the benefits of money-laundering by the state and began exploring the possibilities of alternative currencies. In 1976 he published the book: Denationalization of Money: An Analysis of the Theory and Practice of Concurrent Currencies. According to Hayek, the state monopoly on the issue of money should be abolished, he writes: The special right of the country's governments to issue and regulate money could not help the society to receive much better money than it would have without the intervention of governments. It was this work by Hayek that prepared the ideological basis for the creation of decentralized digital currency. The purpose of creating a cryptocurrency is to get rid of the directives of central banks. If cryptocurrencies are created by the governments of countries, the basic idea of creating a virtual currency that virtual capital in the Internet space must be beyond the control and regulation of the government is lost. It is in this fundamental idea that the best degree of freedom is best seen, the increased degree of human dependence on free money, which raises many questions, namely:  What is the philosophical concept of creating cryptocurrency?  What worldview feeds the existence of cryptocurrency?  Does the existence of cryptocurrency have an intellectual basis?  What is the future of this venture?  What principles or obligations should the government follow when talking about cryptocurrency?  Is the world preparing for a single currency? The term decentralized digital currency has great appeal, the freedom to depend on money on this scale has long been awaited by mankind, despite the fact that we have numerous examples of independent money making in the world. Can cryptocurrency free us from default? The answer to this question is heterogeneous. One group of experts believes that they do not see default in the crypto world at all, because there will be no need to attract capital by traditional methods, there will be no need for long-term commitments, no bonds will be needed, we will move from the industrial era to the service era, cryptocurrencies. Wall Street positioners even call this view futuristic and say that bonds are a structure of contracts and rules that are not in the crypto world. In our opinion, this may be the traditional paradigm of the attitude of the old representatives of the financial world to the crypto industry. There have been serious tectonic shifts in recent geoeconomics, such as Brexit, the struggle for Catalan independence, the Donald Trump phenomenon, the Recep Tayyip Erdogan factor, and so on. All this breaks the old economic models that we previously thought were unalternative. In the final part of the research topic, we discuss the pros and cons of cryptocurrency, namely that the exchange rate of any cryptocurrency fluctuates rapidly in a very short period of time, there may be a complete depreciation of a particular currency, nothing can prevent it, Return is virtually impossible because the transactions are anonymous, there have been numerous cases of cryptocurrency exchanges in the world, it is practically impossible to investigate the fact, due to the anonymity of these transactions, cryptocurrencies are not secured by any assets, unlike shares they do not allow buyers or property. Against this background, it is interesting to see what place cryptocurrency will occupy in the new currency system. The fact is that virtual finance is a new word in online technology that will change in the future, no matter what the new model of running the economy

A banknote is a currency issued by a country, and it was first introduced in the 16th century. The counterfeiting of banknotes by cunning criminals became a great challenge with the current advanced technology. Forensic scientists are using chemical methods, such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for differentiating genuine and counterfeit banknotes. However, the FTIR spectra of banknotes may require further pattern recognition analysis due to their high similarities. In this paper, a fuzzy graph-based algorithm for authentication of the FTIR spectrum, namely chemometrics fuzzy autocatalytic set (c-FACS), is used to discriminate between genuine and counterfeit hundred Ringgit Malaysian (RM100) banknotes. The results show that the genuine and counterfeit RM100 banknotes have slightly distinct patterns when analyzed using c-FACS. In addition, the results are compared with RM50 banknotes, and the results reveal that the nodes or dominant axis varies between the two banknotes. To verify the reliability of the results, the results obtained via c-FACS are compared with principal component analysis (PCA). The c-FACS showed better performances as compared to PCA in terms of time consumption and observation. Thus, the c-FACS has the ability to assist forensic investigations involving banknote counterfeiting crimes.

This article shows that the cash function of central banks (specifically banknotes) receives little attention in the academic literature and helps to fill this void. Banknote issuance comes at a great cost to central banks, but through seigniorage banknotes in circulation are an important source of income for central banks. This matter also receives scant attention in academic literature. The cost of the seigniorage sharing agreement between South Africa and the member countries of the Common Monetary Area (Eswatini, Lesotho and Namibia) is similarly an aspect that receives little attention. Both these matters are also identified as areas for further research. Since unification in 1910, South Africa has had its own independent currency, which was modelled on the imperial system of £/s/d until 1961. A decimal currency system was introduced in 1961. Coincidentally, South Africa also became a Republic in 1961, but the two processes were completely independent of each other. A decimal currency system was not a condition for becoming a Republic, while becoming a Republic was also not a condition for a decimal currency system. Both Australia and New Zealand have decimalised without becoming independent republics. Since 1922, banknotes in circulation have grown at a steady pace close to 10 per cent per year. This constant growth rate is recorded despite volatility in the annual economic growth rate and variations in the annual inflation rate over the past century. This growth rate has been sustained despite the adoption of new payment instruments such as credit cards and direct fund transfers. However, it is still too early to judge whether cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin will result in a change in the growth rate of banknotes in circulation. The real value of the largest note in circulation in South Africa has declined sharply over time. At present it is the R200 note, which has been the largest note in circulation since 1993. South Africa is ready for a banknote with a face value greater than R200, as R200 is the lowest value of the largest note in circulation since 1922, when adjusted for inflation. Even within a cash environment, the national payment system is of great importance, as it is the system used for the recording of transactions on bank accounts at commercial banks, including when customers withdraw cash from such accounts, or make deposits. This system enables real-time settlement of bank transactions. It is striking that the national payment system also receives little attention in the academic literature. Finally, the literature reports a lack of comparative studies of the banknote distribution functions of central banks. Studies of such a nature will be useful within a larger comparative study of the institutional structures of central banks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hard currency (‘umlah) plays an essential role in any modern economy. The introduction of money as a means of remuneration successfully eliminated the problems posed by traditional barter trade. Gold and silver became the most widely accepted and circulated form of money in the medieval world, stored in the treasuries of the kings and the wealthy and powerful. In 1971 the US government abolished the Bretton Woods system and exchanged with the floating or fiat economy system which soon became the standard currency system worldwide. Disappointingly, no Muslim government produced legal rulings (fatwas) which rejected the legality of the fiat system and demanded the return to gold and silver backed currency. The single fatwa issued in Saudi Arabia in 1985 concluded that paper currency had completely replaced gold and silver and that all previous Islamic legal rulings issued on gold and silver were now applicable to paper currency. This paper study critically evaluates the 1985 fatwa, questions its legal validity and concludes that only a solid gold and silver currency fulfills the legal requirements of an Islamic currency of which all Muslim economies should adopt and protect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All banknotes have security features which are intended to help determine whether they are false or genuine. Typically, however, the general public has limited knowledge of where on a banknote these security features can be found. Here, we tested whether counterfeit detection can be improved with the help of salient elements, designed to guide bottom-up visuospatial attention. We also tested the influence of the participant's a priori level of trust in the authenticity of the banknote. In an online study (N = 422), a demographically diverse panel of Dutch participants distinguished genuine banknotes from banknotes with one (left- or right-sided) counterfeited security feature. Either normal banknotes (without novel design elements) or banknotes that contained a salient element (a pink rectangular frame) were presented for 1 s. To manipulate the participant's level of trust, trials were administered in three blocks, whereby at the start of each block, participants were instructed that either one third, one half, or two thirds of the upcoming banknotes were counterfeit (though the true ratio was always 1:1). We hypothesized (i) that in the presence of a salient element, counterfeits would be better detected when the location of the salient element aligned with the location of the counterfeited security feature—i.e. that it would act as an attentional cue; and (ii) that this effect would be stronger with lower trust. Our hypotheses were partly confirmed: counterfeit detection improved with 'valid cues' and decreasing trust, but the level of trust did not modulate the cueing effect. As the overall detection performance was rather poor, we replicated the study with a sample of university students (N = 66), this time presenting stimuli until response. While indeed observing better overall performance, all other patterns were replicated. Our results provide evidence that attention can be guided to enhance banknote authentication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In laser multiphoton electron extraction spectroscopy (MEES), the photo-charges extracted from a surface by a pulsed laser beam are recorded as a function of laser wavelength. We report the first application of this spectroscopy to banknotes. Various banknotes from different countries, authentic and counterfeit, have been tested. The results indicate that MEES spectra are both informative (many peaks) and reproducible. The spectra allow for clear distinction between authentic and counterfeit banknotes. Actually, MEES provides a unique fingerprint of the banknotes, so that distinction between various forgery methods (printer used) is also possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In our time Modern technology plays an effective role as one of the currency security elements against counterfeit, Making it an added value in combating counterfeiting and securing currency against fraud Thus preserving the global and national economy and preventing many crimes that result from currency counterfeiting, Japan's Hitachi has developed a micro-chips that identify radio frequency (RFID) 60 microns and operate at 2.45 GHz, which does not require any external antenna, Allowing the inclusion of tracking and identification chips within banknotes, tickets and other paper products. [1]The micro-chips RFID has been added to the Euro, Japanese Yen, US Dollar and Australian Dollar Currencies to increase their security alongside with the currency common security components. Hence, the problem of the research is that the Egyptian banknotes does not guarantee the technology of micro-chips RFID IC tags to increase its security properties, especially larger denomination banknotes such as the hundred and two hundred Egyptian pounds, which is the first target of the forgers, which is always trying to falsify and print.The research used an analytical, descriptive approach based on the description and analysis of the RF-IC tags and the experiences of countries in integrating this technology into their banknotes in order to achieve the desired results.The research aims to shed light on the importance of the use of microchips RFID IC tags as a value added to Egyptian paper currency to raise the banknote security level in accordance with the currency denomination. In order to achieve the objective of the research, the research plan included the following axes:The first axis: Definition of RFID technology and its typesThe second axis: Micro-RFID chip from Japanese HitachiAxis 3: Banknotes containing the micro - RFID chipAxis IV: A proposed model for the 200-pound banknote to integrate the micro RFID chip as an added value to its current security elements.The research has yielded the following results: The embed of micro-chip RFID into banknotes will increase the security levels of the banknote, the difficulty of fraud and the speed of discovery of the fraud. also Microchip RFID technology will make it easier to read and verify the banknotes through the banks' And ATMs.

The paper deals with the problems of banknote production of the Imperial Russian State Papers Manufactory (hereinafter — Manufactory) during the First World War. The purpose of the work is to provide information about the project of cooperation between Manufactory and the Partnership of Typography «A. A. Levenson» that arose in wartime circumstances. The relevance of the work is seen from the fact that the issues not reflected in historiography. The study will provide more complete and clear picture of the Russian banknote production during the First World War; the solutions to the crisis of the industry and the role of prominent printer S. S. Ermolaev in this process. Unpublished sources from the Central State Historical Archive of St. Petersburg (hereinafter — CSHA St. P) served as the basis for preparing the work

Background: To date, there have been no reports on the occurrence of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) organisms (nor tuberculosis [TB]) on money, currency, banknotes, or coins, where these may act as fomites in the potential transmission of mycobacterial organisms around communities, especially in developing nations, where physical currency is still the popular mainstay of the economy, compared to electronic and digital forms of currency transaction. It was therefore the aim of this study to examine the survival of the Mycobacterium abscessus complex organisms on coins. Methods: Coins from 17 countries were examined for the presence of M. abscessus complex organisms by broth enrichment in Middlebrook 7H9 for 2 months. Nickel-plated steel and copper-plated steel coins were artificially contaminated individually with M. abscessus complex (circa 107 [7 log10] organisms/coin), including M. abscessus subsp. massiliense (n = 2), M. abscessus subsp. bolletti (n = 2), and M. abscessus subsp. abscessus (n = 1) and their surviving cells enumerated at weekly period up to 5-week postinoculation. Results: NTM organisms were not isolated from coins from the 17 currencies examined. In all three subspecies of M. abscessus, the copper-plated steel coins caused a more rapid decline in organism numbers, which were statistically very significant (P < 0.0001), compared to the paired survival on the nickel-plated steel coins, whereby organisms were none detectable after 3-week storage on the copper-plated coins. NTM organisms survived better on the nickel-plated coins, with a mean count across all subspecies of log10 1.84 colony forming units per coin after 5 weeks of storage (range: 0.6–2.69 log10 cfu/coin). There was no statistically significant difference (P > 0.05; 5%) in the survival dynamics among the three subspecies with storage on either coin type. Conclusions: Health-care professionals should be aware of the survival of M. abscessus complex organisms on coins for up to 12 weeks, which may be particular relevant in high-risk areas of health-care institutions where TB or NTM is prevalent and where there are opportunities for the transmission of such organisms through contaminated fomites, including coins, through opportunities including payment for treatments/medicines/dressings, coin-operated payment facilities, such as hospital car parking, self-service vending machines, hospital canteens, coffee shops and dining halls and hospital shops, whether static or mobile onward visits. To mitigate potential infection consequences of handling coins contaminated with M. abscessus complex organisms, other NTMs organisms and TB, the authors support re-establishing the principles of basic hygiene, including proper handwashing and the avoidance of handling money when working with food or dressing wounds and skin lesions, as well as when working with respiratory devices, including nebulizers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Money is the most common item with which we have daily contact. Circulated banknotes and coins can become microbiologically contaminated and act as both a source and a means of spreading such pollutants. Material and methods: The study was carried out in three money sorting facilities in Poland. Bioaerosol samples were collected using a 6-stage Andersen impactor, and microorganisms deposited on tabletop surfaces were sampled using the swab method. Bacterial and fungal concentrations were calculated and all isolated species were taxonomically identified. Results: The study confirmed that means of payment are active sources of microbial emission in money sorting facilities. The bioaerosol concentrations did not exceed the threshold limit values proposed for this type of office premises. It confirms that ventilation systems in these facilities worked efficiently, protecting them from the migration of microbial contaminants present in both indoor and outdoor (atmospheric) background air. On the other hand, the average concentrations of bacteria and fungi on tabletop surfaces in banknote and coin sorting rooms were above the proposed purity levels for indoor surfaces and should be treated as microbiologically contaminated. Microbiota isolated from the air and surfaces were very diverse and among those strains were bacterial and fungal pathogens that can pose a health threat to exposed individuals. Conclusions: The results showed that employees in money sorting facilities were exposed to microorganisms that may contribute to the development of adverse health outcomes. To protect them, highly efficient hygienic measures should be introduced in this working environment, to prevent both unwanted pollution and subsequent secondary emission of microbial contaminants from sorted means of payment and tabletop surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an invisible anthology of the Bulgarian literature that we literally carry along with us and hold in our hands every day. Its “pocket edition” is constantly before our eyes. And precisely because of that, it remains invisible and hidden from us. I am speaking about the texts printed on the last Bulgarian banknotes, those that we use now and that one day will be replaced by the common European currency. We’ll demonstrate how through the selected 7 figures and their texts the ‘canon of the banknotes’ is slightly retreated from the national-revolutionary canon, yet remains in the patriotic register. There is an accent on culture and its institutions, on the openness to the European space and the world. Part of the figures that appear on the banknotes are canonical yet presented with less known para-canonical works. What I will try to do in this text is to provide a magnifying glass for seeing the hidden signs and reading the texts and stories inscribed on today’s banknotes, including the delicate female presence on one of them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article seeks to contribute to the conceptualization of everyday repair with a focus on banknotes, a ubiquitous and mundane technology in constant need of maintenance and repair. Through a design anthropology approach, we examine how practices of repairing banknotes are entangled with discourses of innovation that manifest in everyday life. This is complemented with a short ethnographic account of how damage, care and repair of banknotes in Chile are articulated through mundane everyday life activities.

Marina A Costa,1 Layane M Teodoro,1 Gustavo H Bahia-de-Oliveira,2 Ana Paula N Nunes,3 Ricardo A Barata1 1Laboratório de Parasitologia, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal dos Vales dos Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG, Brazil; 2Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias, Departamento de Farmácia, Universidade Federal dos Vales dos Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG, Brazil; 3Laboratório de Bioestatística e Epidemiologia, Departamento de Ciências Básicas, Universidade Federal dos Vales dos Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, MG, Brazil Background: Banknotes are objects of great turnover and diffusion among the population, and can be efficient mechanisms in the dissemination of several intestinal parasites. This study investigated the presence of biological forms of intestinal parasites present in circulating cash banknotes in the city of Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil, aiming to propose interventions aimed at improving local public health. Materials and methods: Between February and April 2017, samples of banknotes collected in five commercial establishments of the city were analyzed, namely: 1) gas station, 2) supermarket, 3) butchery, 4) pharmacy and 5) free fair. Ten circulating banknotes of each value (R$2.00, R$5.00, R$10.00, R$20.00, R$50.00 and R$100.00) were exchanged for new banknotes, washed with Tween 80 and, after spontaneous sedimentation, analyzed under an optical microscope with a magnification of 10× and 40×. Results: Cysts of Entamoeba coli (74.60%), cysts of Endolimax nana (16.94%), Giardia lamblia cysts (4.44%), unidentified nematode larvae (2.02%), Hymenolepis sp. (0.81%), Taenia sp. (0.81%) and Ancylostomidae larvae (0.40%) were found. Conclusions: The results revealed the need for improvements in basic sanitation, health and education activities that emphasized the importance of proper hand hygiene. Keywords: intestinal parasites, banknotes, Diamantina

Around the world, the adoption of digital payment systems continues to grow apace. At the same time, however, the demand for cash continues to grow in both developed and developing economies. This puzzle has found only partial explanations in the previous empirical literature. This paper presents further conclusive evidence that the adoption of digital payments reduces the demand for cash. It also discusses how growth in the demand for cash is driven by economic growth and lower interest rates as well as secular positive trends in the demand for large denomination banknotes, related to unobservable factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Michael Billig's idea of "banal nationalism" is a useful concept to approach a frequently neglected aspect of Venezuelan political disputes in the past 20 years. In Billig's formulation, banal nationalism is the constant reaffirmation of a nation's identity, through the display of national symbols. After Hugo Chavez rose to power, there were changes to Venezuela's flag, coat of arms, and banknotes. This aroused disputes that served as a micro-cosmos of Venezuela's larger confrontation. This article reviews the disputes over the changes made to those national symbols. It concludes that, although political and economic issues are at stake in Venezuela's current crisis, there are also ongoing culture wars. In that sense, an analysis of Venezuela's recent crisis would be incomplete without a consideration of its banal nationalism disputes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]