Search

A method for banknote identification has been developed. As a prerequisite for this process, an ATM stores records captured from accepted banknotes, including customer's information for identification. The proposed method is implemented when a counterfeit banknote is detected. The ATM identifies a record corresponding to the counterfeit banknote among the stored records, assisting in the identification of the customer who used it. This identification is carried out by exploiting characteristic differences between counterfeit and genuine banknotes. These differences are defined in terms of positions and magnitudes of variations. An experiment using simulated banknotes was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the proposed method. Additionally, another experiment involving digitally synthesized banknotes was conducted to determine the performance limits of the proposed method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Money: It is a means of exchanging and accumulating goods and services and determining their value. From past to present, commodities such as wheat, dates, hides, spears, and axes; metals such as iron, copper, gold and silver, negotiable instruments such as suftece, papers such as banknotes, and digital assets have been used as money. While these money kinds used throughout history are generally classified as commodity money, metallic money, receipt money and fiat money in the economic literature, they are classified as hilqaten/created money and ıstılahî/terminologically money in fiqh literature. Hilqaten money are currency that have a dual nature as both goods and money, as they derive their value from their own intrinsic value. Those minted from gold were used in circulation as dinars, those minted from silver as dirhams, and those with a low contribution of other metals in these coins were used in circulation as magşuş (mağlûbu'l-gış) money. Istılahî money is money that has become a measure of value when people say, "This is money" and derives its real value from an external value, not from its own intrinsic value. Those minted from metals other than gold and silver were used in circulation under the names of fülûs and those with a more contribution of other metals in these coins were used in circulation as magşuş (ğâlibu'l-gış) and settûka. Paper money, which became widespread in the 19th century, was built within a system by the economically and politically powerful states of the period, and the way in which paper money would be put into circulation was determined by international principles. In this context, from the beginning, the world paper money system generally went through four phases and took its current form. These are respectively; pre-1875 bimetallism gold and silver standard; monometallism only gold standard from 1875-1944; between 1944 and 1973 it was the gold exchange standard and after 1973 it was only the paper money standard. Before 1875, paper money in bimetallism standard system, that is, banknotes, was put into circulation as representative money in exchange for gold and silver. In the monometallism standard between 1875 and 1944, banknotes were put into circulation as representative money only in exchange for gold. In the gold exchange standard between 1944 and 1973, known as the Bretton Woods system, paper money was put into circulation in exchange for the dollar, which derived its value from gold. Thus, banknotes were traded in the markets as representative money, taking their value directly from dollars and indirectly from gold. In the current paper money standard, which is called the flexible exchange rate system after 1973, paper money is used in circulation as fiat money, deriving its value from its purchasing power only to the extent of the power of the authority that puts it into circulation. In this context quality of being measure of value, structure and kind of banknotes which emerged and spread more recently than others are explicit at many points in the economic literature, they are controversial in Islamic law. In this article, it is examined whether banknotes qualify as money according to Islamic law and, if so, what type and structure of money they are. In this context, the history, theory, and types of money have been analyzed in the economics and Fiqh literature and banknotes was substantiated in Islamic law with consideration the international monetary system. As a result, banknotes are ıstılahî a measure of value, should be subject to ijtihad according to the way it is put into circulation and it has been determined that it is a separate money as paper money, unlike dinar, dirham, fulūs etc. In this respect, paper money, which was put into circulation as receipt money directly or indirectly in exchange for gold, silver or both before 1973, should be evaluated as ıstılahî money in terms of value measure but is hilqaten money in terms of provision; after 1973, namely today, paper money that is put into circulation as fiat money in a way that derives its value from the power of the authority that puts it into circulation should be evaluated as ıstılahî money in terms of both value measure and provision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two interesting banknote cases are reported, one regarding a 50 Euro note and the other a Philippine 200 Peso note. Both questioned banknotes were examined and compared with their respective control banknotes. Both questioned banknotes displayed discrepancies with respect to the corresponding control banknotes. However, the authenticity of the 50 Euro note and the Philippine 200 Peso note remained undetermined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of a new form of digital central bank money (Central Bank Digital Currency – CBDC) is actively discussed in the Eurozone. This paper explores different design features of retail CBDC and highlights terminological inconsistencies in the debate surrounding their legal status. It compares CBDC to incumbent forms of money and analyses central questions regarding their introduction from the perspective of European Union law, especially whether the ECB has to power to introduce CBDC and under which conditions CBDC would have legal tender status. For this appraisal, focus is especially put on the interpretation of the notions 'legal tender', 'banknotes', and 'coins' referred to in Art. 128 TFEU; the analysis is supported by experiences drawn from the legal discussion in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans interact constantly with surfaces and associated microbial communities in the environment. The factors shaping the composition of these communities are poorly understood: some proposed explanations emphasize the influence of local habitat conditions (niche‐based explanations), while others point to geographic structure and the distance among sampled locations (dispersal‐based explanations). However, the relative roles of these different drivers for microbial community assembly on human‐associated surfaces are not clear. Here, we used a combination of sampling, sequencing (16S rRNA) and culturing to show that the composition of banknote‐associated bacterial communities varies depending on the local collection environment. Using banknotes collected from various locations and types of shops across Switzerland, we found taxonomic diversity dominated by families such as Pseudomonadaceae and Staphylococcaceae, but with banknote samples from particular types of shops (especially butcher shops) having distinct community structure. By contrast, we found no evidence of geographic structure: similarity of community composition did not decrease with increasing distance among sampled locations. These results show that microbial communities associated with banknotes, one of the most commonly encountered and exchanged human‐associated surfaces, can reflect the local environmental conditions (in this case, the type of shop), and the signal for this type of variation was stronger than that for geographic structure among the locations sampled here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Formalism in law has generally been manifested in three positions that are completely different from each other. The first type of formalism is formalism in the realm of legal rule, which is used from the topics of Law philosophy and the concept of validity of legal rule based on formal criteria, regardless of its efficiency and content evaluation. In other words, the legal rule that has gone through the necessary formalities is respected, even if it is not efficient, or it has ignored the fundamentals and basic factors of law such as: economy, culture, and the like. Another type of formalism is in the realm of legal reasoning and is considered one of the topics of law logic and is used to emphasize the wording and form of expressions, even in conflict or at least, ignoring the spirit of the law. In this way, legal reasoning is actually reduced to formal logic or mathematical logic. Its function is to require the courts to understand the text of the legal article and make logical inferences from the legal article, for this reason, it is sometimes called mechanical legal theory. The third type of formalism is dedicated to the realm of legal acts. This type of formalism, which is the subject of this research, can be presented in interaction with the will of individuals, which to the concept of the requirement of certain exclusive and binding forms in legal acts and the regulation and issuance of documents, and the lack of freedom in the form of legal acts in creating, transferring and the guarantee of commercial documents is contrary to the originality of consent or even the principle of freedom of expression of will.Commercial documents in a special sense in terms of the role they have in the economic relations of individuals, especially merchants, follow certain systems and have certain characteristics. But the most basic feature of these documents is their formality. In the sense that the existence of intention and declaration in the creation, transfer, guarantee, and even payment of commercial documents although necessary, is not sufficient, but the observance and application of the form is relevant and has consequences on it. In fact, the legal form is dependent on the will and is understood in interaction with it and it is: "an external and tangible element that discovers, completes, proves, supports or directs the inner will or replaces it." which is relevant in the realm of legal actions, on this basis, if the will is assumed to mean the creation, change, transfer or cancellation of a right or legal status, the discussion of the form in legal events will not be relevant, because the form in legal events is an empirical manifestation in their sensible face. Although this form can be effective in law, this form of influence has a philosophical basis and cannot be called a legal form. Special attention and special credit to the form in commercial documents are often the initiatives of merchants and have evolved throughout history and have been approved by the legislator, jurisprudence and legal doctrine in international conventions and different countries. Contrary to other branches of private law, including contract law, and the validity of the principle of the sovereignty of the will as an indisputable principle and a symbol of the growth and maturity of private law, basically, formalism causes slowness and sometimes complexity in the contractual and economic relations of individuals, especially merchants, while, considering the philosophy of the separation of commercial documents and also the basis of creating these documents, the appreciation of formalism in this branch of private law is based on speed, ease and reliability in commercial relations. On the same basis, the idea of replacing the commercial document with a banknote as a container of money (not money itself) is one of the important reasons and foundations for the creation and use of commercial documents, which has a close relationship with the general economic order, with the explanation that money is a form of credit resulting from the power and authority of the government, which may be poured into any format, whether it is a banknote, a credit card, a check, or digital currency. Therefore, commercial documents are not based on the basis of replacing that credit essence (money), but on the basis of being recognized as a container of money and a substitute for banknotes, which is the most obvious example of a container of money. This article tried, different from the researches, to analyze the concept and ratio of formalism interaction with will and its foundations in commercial documents.

• Vacuum metal deposition is the optimum method for fingermarks on handled banknotes. • Performance of each fingermark visualisation technique varies with issuing bank. • Handling of polymer banknotes causes surface cracking and degradation of printing. The surface structure of mint (as-issued) and handled polymer five pounds sterling banknotes was studied by atomic force microscopy and laser scanning confocal microscopy. A total of 1856 fingermarks on mint and handled banknotes from four different issuing banks (Bank of England, Bank of Scotland, Royal Bank of Scotland and Clydesdale Bank) were visualised with Vacuum Metal Deposition (VMD), Cyanoacrylate Fuming (CAF) and, on Clydesdale Bank notes, magnetic fluorescent powder. VMD was significantly more effective in developing fingermarks on handled banknotes, across all the banks studied, although effectiveness varied with issuing bank. For example, on handled Bank of England notes 45% of marks showed ridge detail with VMD development and 28% with CAF; for Bank of Scotland handled notes success rates were 17% with VMD and 1% with CAF. Microscopy of degraded banknotes showed the loss of intaglio printing and the formation of a cracked surface structure in the handled notes. These features can lead to the trapping of powder, or contaminants, increasing quantity of development agent in fingermark background between the ridges, decreasing contrast and decreasing performance of powder-based fingermark development techniques. These same features can restrict the migration of components of the fingermark, preventing fingermarks degrading through spread of material and thus reducing potential formation of empty prints, so that VMD development is not adversely affected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Forensic Science & Technology is the property of Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Public Security and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Historically, the recording of information over paper has always been regarded as the most important factor for maintaining records of human activities and spreading civilization. The present work is focusing to formulate hydride paper polymer sheets (HPPSs) using two fluorescence dyes (4-(2,6-diphenylpyridin-4-yl)-N,N-dimethylaniline) (F1) and (4-(2,6-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)pyridin-4-yl)-N,N-dimethylaniline) (F2) for the production of secure hybrid paper polymer sheets each with a different concentration. Mechanical properties, including tensile strength (MPa), Young's modulus (MPa), elongation (mm), folding endurance, and tear resistance (mN m2/g), were determined. Furthermore, a topographical study was carried out using field emission scanning electron microscopes (FE-SEM). In comparison with native paper and polymer films, HPPSs demonstrated a significant improvement in mechanical properties. The fluorescence behavior of applied dyes was evaluated in both solution and solid states with UV–vis and photoluminescence (PL). The results confirmed that excitation of F1 and F2 dyes occurred at 393 nm and 448 nm and emission at 505 nm and 496 nm, respectively. Additionally, the third concentration (3% w/v) of both dyes was observed in solid state to achieve excellent resolution. In the first image, a note is shown under normal light, and in the second image, a picture is shown of the fluorescent security markings under UV light at 365 nm. Based on the results obtained, it is proven that the developed high stable as well as excellent mechanical security HPPSs can be used for paper-based information security due to their optical properties. Further, the density function theory (DFT) calculation was performed in order to identify the composition of the excited and ground states. According to the results, the N,N-dimethylamine substituent played a crucial role in explaining the extraordinarily high luminescence of F1 and F2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article shows that the cash function of central banks (specifically banknotes) receives little attention in the academic literature and helps to fill this void. Banknote issuance comes at a great cost to central banks, but through seigniorage banknotes in circulation are an important source of income for central banks. This matter also receives scant attention in academic literature. The cost of the seigniorage sharing agreement between South Africa and the member countries of the Common Monetary Area (Eswatini, Lesotho and Namibia) is similarly an aspect that receives little attention. Both these matters are also identified as areas for further research. Since unification in 1910, South Africa has had its own independent currency, which was modelled on the imperial system of £/s/d until 1961. A decimal currency system was introduced in 1961. Coincidentally, South Africa also became a Republic in 1961, but the two processes were completely independent of each other. A decimal currency system was not a condition for becoming a Republic, while becoming a Republic was also not a condition for a decimal currency system. Both Australia and New Zealand have decimalised without becoming independent republics. Since 1922, banknotes in circulation have grown at a steady pace close to 10 per cent per year. This constant growth rate is recorded despite volatility in the annual economic growth rate and variations in the annual inflation rate over the past century. This growth rate has been sustained despite the adoption of new payment instruments such as credit cards and direct fund transfers. However, it is still too early to judge whether cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin will result in a change in the growth rate of banknotes in circulation. The real value of the largest note in circulation in South Africa has declined sharply over time. At present it is the R200 note, which has been the largest note in circulation since 1993. South Africa is ready for a banknote with a face value greater than R200, as R200 is the lowest value of the largest note in circulation since 1922, when adjusted for inflation. Even within a cash environment, the national payment system is of great importance, as it is the system used for the recording of transactions on bank accounts at commercial banks, including when customers withdraw cash from such accounts, or make deposits. This system enables real-time settlement of bank transactions. It is striking that the national payment system also receives little attention in the academic literature. Finally, the literature reports a lack of comparative studies of the banknote distribution functions of central banks. Studies of such a nature will be useful within a larger comparative study of the institutional structures of central banks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Numismática Hécate is the property of Revista Numismatica Hecate and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The paper provides a review of the activities of the Ministry of Finance and the National Bank of Yugoslavia in the period from 1931 to 1941, during which the 50-dinar banknote was prepared, printed and, after almost ten years of waiting, put into circulation for a short amount of time. The preparations for the production of the 50-dinar banknote, which bears the date 1 December 1931, began at the beginning of the same year. The banknote was made for the event of an emergency situation in the country, when silver coins disappear from circulation, to replace those coins, and to enable unhindered cash circulation. It was released on 8 April 1941, when the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was already at war, in the total amount of 30,792,000 pieces. The National Bank only put a small part of that into circulation, and destroyed a larger part, but the occupying forces also used it for payments in the country. The withdrawal from circulation was carried out by the Serbian National Bank in the occupied Serbia, from 14 to 22 October 1941.

Paper is a readily available material in nature. Its recyclability, eco-friendliness, portability, flexibility, and affordability make it a favored substrate for researchers seeking cost-effective solutions. Electronic devices based on solution process are fabricated on paper and banknotes using PVK and SnO 2 nanoparticles. The devices manufactured on paper substrates exhibit photosynaptic behavior under ultraviolet pulse illumination, stemming from numerous interactions on the surface of the SnO 2 nanoparticles. A light-modulated artificial synapse device is realized on a paper at a low voltage bias of -0.01 V, with an average recognition rate of 91.7% based on the Yale Face Database. As a security device on a banknote, 400 devices in a 20 × 20 array configuration exhibited random electrical characteristics owing to the local morphology of the SnO 2 nanoparticles and differences in the depletion layer width at the SnO 2 /PVK interface. The security Physically Unclonable Functions (PUF) key based on the current distribution extracted at -1 V show unpredictable reproducibility with 50% uniformity, 48.7% inter-Hamming distance, and 50.1% bit-aliasing rates. Moreover, the device maintained its properties for more than 210 days under a curvature radius of 8.75 mm and bias and UV irradiation stress conditions., (© 2024 Wiley‐VCH GmbH.)

Polymer banknotes are the trend for printed currency and have been adopted by more than fifty countries worldwide. However, over the past years, the quantity of polymer counterfeits has been increasing, so has the quality of counterfeits. This shows that the initial advantage of bringing a new polymer technology to fight against counterfeiting is reducing. To maintain one step ahead of counterfeiters, we propose a novel anti-counterfeiting technique called Polymer Substrate Fingerprinting (PSF). Our technique is built based on the observation that the opacity coating, a critical step during the production of polymer notes, is a stochastic manufacturing process, leaving uneven thickness in the coating layer and the random dispersion of impurities from the ink. The imperfections in the coating layer result in random translucent patterns when a polymer banknote is back-lit by a light source. We show these patterns can be reliably captured by a commodity negative-film scanner and processed into a compact fingerprint to uniquely identify each banknote. Using an extensive dataset of 6,200 sample images collected from 340 UK banknotes, we show that our method can reliably authenticate banknotes, and is robust against rough daily handling of banknotes. Furthermore, we show the extracted fingerprints contain around 900 bits of entropy, which makes it extremely scalable to identify every polymer note circulated globally. As compared with previous or existing anti-counterfeiting mechanisms for banknotes, our method has a distinctive advantage: it ensures that even in the extreme case when counterfeiters have procured the same printing equipment and ink as used by a legitimate government, counterfeiting banknotes remains infeasible because of the difficulty to replicate a stochastic manufacturing process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 1,000-dinar banknote bearing the issuing date 1 December 1931 was put into circulation on 1 January 1933 and withdrawn from circulation in the period from 4-11 June 1941. The recording and production of the clichés were done at the Banque de France, Paris, while the watermarked paper was purchased from Portals Ltd, Hants, England and printed at the Institute for Manufacturing Banknotes and Coins in Belgrade. The author of this banknote is Paja Jovanović, one of the greatest Serbian painters. There is no official information on the exact number of these banknotes in circulation, but based on the amount of paper ordered, it can be assumed that 10 to 11 million banknotes were made in the nominal value of 10 to 11 billion dinars. Banknote dimensions are 195x121mm, drawing dimensions are 181x112mm and the watermark is 35mm in diameter. The banknote is dominated by the image of Queen Marija Karađorđević, and the watermark shows the profile of King Aleksandar Karađorđević.

Copyright of Forensic Science & Technology is the property of Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Public Security and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Yıldırım Beyazıt Law Review (YBLR) is the property of Ankara Yildirim Beyazit University Law School and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The 25-paras banknote from 1921 is the smallest paper banknote in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the post-war Yugoslavia, and the Republic of Serbia. Its dimensions are 92x62mm. In the printing houses in Novi Sad and Zagreb, a total of 199,127,376 pieces of these banknotes were printed, out of the planned 200 million, and were released on 14 June 1921. King Aleksandar I proclaimed the Law on the Printing of a ¼-Dinar Banknote and Replacement of the 1-, 2- and 10-Crown Banknotes of the Austro-Hungarian Bank on 31 November 1921, which, besides his own signature, bears the signatures of Dr L. Marković, Minister of Justice and Nikola Pašić, President of the Ministerial Council.

Copyright of Bankarstvo Magazine is the property of Association of Serbian Banks and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Counterfeit methods are more sophisticated than ever before, so it is necessary to implement as many different methods as possible to get reliable information on the origin of the banknotes. The FTIR spectroscopy provides exactly this, a different approach to the identification of different banknote components, from the paper itself to the characterization of the inks, holograms and watermarks. This paper examines the similarities and differences in the composition of the paper used for making banknotes in six different currencies, and at the same time deals with the characterization of the unique features of a particular currency. Moreover, the consistency within the particular currency is examined by comparing multiple banknotes of the same denomination.

• Leaching and dissolution treatment were used to recover cellulose form Banknotes. • Hydrolysis was used to reprocess the recovered cellulose into cellulose nanocrystals. • Structural and chemical analysis of cellulose nanocrystals was performed. • Cellulose nanocrystals with average size 75 nm and yield >97% were prepared. • The carbon footprint has been reduced by −7060 kg CO 2-eq /ton. Banknote printing is the industry that has a deep influence on financial operations on market, reflecting the economic performance of governments. Therefore, it is surrounded by a great secrecy even when dealing with production waste and end-of-life products, which are utilized very carefully by controlled combustion or incineration after crushing using special techniques designed to ensure that the waste does not come into possession by third parties. This waste contains significant amounts of cotton, percentage of which sometimes can reach up to 100% of the weight of banknote paper. It is clear that disposal of such waste by simply incinerating it is contrary to the principles of sustainability and preservation of resources. In order to achieve these principles, this research aims to develop a new strategy called "Banknote for Banknote (BFB)" to recover and refine cotton from Banknote waste and later reuse it in the production of banknote paper or reprocess it into cellulose nanocrystals suitable for use in many advanced applications through a sustainable technology. The experiments were performed only on the Banknote Production Waste (BPW) (which is estimated as ˜3% of the total volume of Banknote production) because the end-of-life banknotes are usually contaminated with many substances during the circulation. Some of them can become hazardous to the extent of being contaminated with drugs (e.g. cocaine, etc.); that requires many additional analyses and special treatment. In the developed technology BPW was treated by using five sequential processes that were selected based on the banknote design, structure, need to reach minimum gas emissions and high recovery rate. The technology began from crushing treatment at the Central Bank for safety reasons, then leaching process was used to dissolve the heavy metals from the ink layer (Al, Fe, Ni, etc.) and separate other pigment metal elements (Si, Ti, etc.) in the form of suspended particles, while the dissolution and bleaching stages were employed to dissolve the remaining organic components and purify the cotton substrate. Finally, acid hydrolysis was used to prepare Cellulose nanocrystals with average size 75 nm from the purified cotton. Although the experiments were conducted on Egyptian Banknote, the advanced technology is applicable to all types of cotton based-banknotes with high profitability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In my essay I deal with the economic events of the last year of the First World War in Hungary. In the last year of the first big war the industry of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was barely capable of supplying the fighting troops. There was a shortage of clothing, weapons and food in the army. Also the land became poor in the long war. I want to present the intense exhaustion which was characterized this period. The process that depleted all human, material and financial resources. The war effort has weakened the country within. I show the strong state intervention which in the last year of the First World War determined the everyday of the Hungarian economy. The most important economic things in this time was the food affair, the question of coal supply, the situation of the railway and the destiny of the common money of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. I try to illuminate these elementary factors a little bit better. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Bankarstvo Magazine is the property of Association of Serbian Banks and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

At the session of the National Bank's Board of Directors, held on 12 December 1914 in Niš, the Governor, Georg Weifert, in his address, gave the consent to issue the new type of a 50-dinar banknote in silver, which had already been sent to the Banque de France in Paris for printing. It was at this session that the closer details about this banknote were disclosed: it was to be painted by Beta Vukanović, and to be printed in the still unspecified amount, with the first delivery of 100,000 pieces planned for 2 January 1915. The first batch of the 50-dinar banknotes bearing the date of 1 August 1914 was received at the National Bank in Kruševac in the first half of March 1915. It remained in circulation from 25 March 1915 officially until 31 March 1934. There was a total of 1,025,000 printed pieces in the nominal value of 51,250,000 dinars, without a single recorded counterfeit copy. This war banknote was, however, short-lived. Prepared hastily with some mistakes in the inscription, it was met with a surprisingly huge opposition among the people who nicknamed it pegavac (spotted fever), which is why the National Bank immediately stopped its further releases into circulation. Thus, it was actually withdrawn from circulation already in 1915.

The central bank takes a central position in the banking system of every country. In the time first banks, for which the state vouched were founded (for example Swedish Riksbank - 1668 or The Bank of England - 1694), the intention couldn't have been for those banks to deal with the functions of a modern central bank: regulating and financial support of the total bank system of a country. The aim was much simpler and came down to advantages that that the state could pull out from the patronage over this chosen bank no matter whether the bank was in state or private ownership. The privileged bank was mostly offered monopoly advantage in issuing banknotes on certain areas of a country or it was proclaimed for the only shareholder bank in a country which was allowed to issue banknotes. So putting the job of issuing banknotes, that is guarding and managing gold reserves under the patronage of one institution had positive consequences for the functioning of the total economy and enabled the state to participate in the gain from issuing money and to achieve its immediate effect in controlling total gold reserves of a country. Central banks, due to the patronage of the state, gain political strength to ensure additional amount of money through rediscounting commercial promissory notes and with that become 'bank of banks'. Business banks get the commitment to keep the largest part of their liquid assets at the central bank, but they gain the financial support of the central bank in the periods when their liquidity is bad.

This study was conducted to determine the presence, type, and rate of parasitic contamination in Iranian currencies. This was a cross-sectional study. Coins and banknotes of different denominations were randomly collected from sellers and markets in Tabriz, Northwest of Iran, for examining parasitic contamination. Entamoeba coli and Giardia intestinalis were the most identified species of parasites in this study. Other parasites detected were Cryptosporidium parvum , Ascaris lumbricoides , Entamoeba histolytica , Fasciola hepatica , and Toxocara cati. A high rate of parasitic contamination was found in banknotes compared with coins, and a statistically significant association was found between parasitic contamination and the apparent condition of the currencies. The notes of lower denominations showed the highest contamination rates. The highest parasitic contamination was found in coins and banknotes obtained from public toilet services, butchers, and beggars. The findings emphasize the role of circulating coins and banknotes in the risk of pathogenic parasite transmission. • Both coin and banknote currencies can be potential environmental vehicles for transmission of parasites. • Entamoeba coli and Giardia intestinalis were the most identified species of parasites in Iranian coins and banknotes. • The highest parasitic contamination was found in coins and banknotes obtained from toilet conductors, butchers, and beggars. • Health education of people on proper handling and care of currency should be advocated to reduce its contamination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detecting the authenticity of paper currencies using automated based Paper Currency Recognition (PCR) with image processing techniques was still a hot topic of discussion, due to the circulation of counterfeit currency that was still overwhelming in some countries. There was a downside along with this advancement in technology in the field of color printing, duplication, and scanning, because it was became one of the supporting factors of the increasing crime rate in production of counterfeit money. Our system has performed a PCR approach based on image processing techniques. In this study, the SAR banknote was the object to be recognized and detected its authenticity with the development of the previous method, which was incorporating the Geometric Template Matching and Grayscale Template Matching. In addition to the pattern recognition process, the classification process on 1 SAR, 2 SAR, 5 SAR, and 10 SAR was also performed. From PCR test up to 100 sample data, for each tested banknote value obtained the average value of the best accuracy level from incorporating GeoMatchingScore and GrayMatchingScore for the classification process was 95.25%. While the average level of system accuracy in recognizing counterfeit money on each banknote obtained a maximum value of 100%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of the current study were to evaluate the antibacterial effects of cellulose nanofiber (CNF), chitosan nanofiber (ChNF), CNF/ChNF combination and chitosan alone (Ch) against the isolated bacterial contaminations from the surface of Iranian banknotes using biochemical, disc diffusion and molecular analyses. The results unveiled that the CNF did not show the significant antibacterial effect against isolated bacterial strains, whereas the combination of CNF/ChNF (at concentration 100 μg/disc 1:1) exhibited the synergistic effects against Stenotrophomonas maltophilia . Also, ChNF (100 μg/disc) and Ch (100 and 200 μg/disc) displayed dose-dependent antibacterial effects against the sensitive bacteria including Bacillus subtilis , Bacillus pumilus , Micrococcus sp. Kosakonia cowanii , Brevibacterium frigoritolerans , Escherichia coli standard ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureus standard ATCC 25923. On the other hand, chitosan displayed the highest inhibitory effects against Gram-positive bacteria. Our results showed that the coating of banknotes with these compounds is a novel strategy to reduce the bacterial contaminations and increase the durability (or quality) of banknotes, without being toxic to the surrounding environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Bankarstvo Magazine is the property of Association of Serbian Banks and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The number of counterfeit banknotes in the world is increasing every year. Since it is much easier to forge banknote with a similar visual characteristic as the original than to produce a banknote with the identical chemical composition as the original, FT-IR spectroscopy is great solution for the genuine validation. The paper will look at the similarities and differences between counterfeit and original banknotes with respect to the materials used. The emphasis will be on euro banknotes; therefore, the characteristic areas of the recorded spectra will be adjusted to the security elements of the given currency. The paper confirmed that FTIR spectroscopy is a suitable method for non-destructive measurements and allows for easy identification of counterfeits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seeking funds to finance the war against the Turks which it entered in July 1876, Serbia, ruled by Prince Milan Obrenović, passed the decision on issuing paper banknotes with no backing in precious metals. They were printed at the national printing house in Belgrade. About 1500 pieces of banknotes of the Main National Treasury of the Principality of Serbia were printed in different denominations: 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 dinars. These banknotes were never actually in circulation, being the test prints only, used to check whether the machines and technology for their future printing were working properly. They are extremely rare and popular with collectors. The most interesting ones are the 1-dinar banknotes because they have no reverse side, the 5-dinar banknotes because they were painted by the poet and painter Đura Jakšić, and the 10-dinar ones because they feature the drawings of the painter Đorđe Krstić.

Counterfeit methods are more sophisticated than ever before, so it is necessary to implement as many different methods as possible to get reliable information on the origin of the banknotes. The FTIR spectroscopy provides exactly this, a different approach to the identification of different banknote components, from the paper itself to the characterization of the inks, holograms and watermarks. This paper examines the similarities and differences in the composition of the paper used for making banknotes in six different currencies, and at the same time deals with the characterization of the unique features of a particular currency. Moreover, the consistency within the particular currency is examined by comparing multiple banknotes of the same denomination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of global economy, the amount of banknotes is rapidly increasing. However, in the circulation process of banknotes, banknotes are readily torn or contaminated. The broken or contaminated banknotes should be retrieved by banks to keep the steady development of the economy. The banknotes sorting machine is a high-technology product with optical-mechanical-electrical integration, which utilize classification algorithms of new and used banknotes as their key algorithm. However, current existing banknotes classification methods suffer from time consuming and low accuracy. In this paper, through analyzing the feature of defects and contaminations in a gray-scale image, we propose an algorithm to classify new and old banknotes into five levels based on the statistical parameters of the feature points in a gray-scale image, gray level-gradient co-occurrence matrices and a multi-DAG-SVM classifier, which can be easily adopted by banknotes sorting applications. Experimental results show that the proposed method is a promising potential application with superior calculating speed and classification efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general conditions of the national currency issuance of Ukraine have been described in the article. The role of money both in the economic sphere, and in the historicalcultural and cognitive sphere has been characterized. The importance of money elements such as design, quality and naming has been substantiated. The historical development of hryvnia as the currency from its inception in Kyivan Rus to its second revival in 1996, and its development features in the modern conditions have been considered. The main hryvnia types such as hryvnia of Kyiv, Chernihiv and Novhorod types have been considered. Their characteristic and comparison have been conducted. The circulation coins in the period of Kyivan Rus (the reign of Volodymyr Velyky, Yaroslav Mudry and Svjatopolk), Kyiv and Seversky principalities, during the Kingdom of Poland, the Great Lithuanian and Rus Principality, the Hungarian Kingdom, the Rzecz Pospolita, the Austrian empire and the Grand Principality of Moscow has been examined. The essence and ruble history, and existing theories of the origin of its name have been investigated. It was found the nature and place of origin, and the origin peculiarities of the coin “kopeck”. The incorrectness in the name of the coin national currency of Ukraine have been pointed out and the ways of its improvement have been offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]