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Biological structural materials, despite consisting of limited kinds of compounds, display multifunctionalities due to their complex hierarchical architectures. While some biomimetic strategies have been applied in artificial materials to enhance their mechanical stability, the simultaneous optimization of other functions along with the mechanical properties via biomimetic designs has not been thoroughly investigated. Herein, iron oxide/carbon nanotube (CNT)-based artificial nacre with both improved mechanical and electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding performance is fabricated via the mineralization of Fe3O4 onto a CNT-incorporated matrix. The micro- and nano-structures of the artificial nacre are similar to those of natural nacre, which in turn improves its mechanical properties. The alternating electromagnetic wave-reflective CNT layers and the wave-absorptive iron oxide layers can improve the multiple reflections of the waves on the surfaces of the reflection layers, which then allows sufficient interactions between the waves and the absorption layers. Consequently, compared with the reflection-dependent EMI-shielding of the non-structured material, the artificial nacre exhibits strong absorption-dependent shielding behavior even with a very low content of wave-absorptive phase. Owing to the high mechanical stability, the shielding effectiveness of the artificial nacre that deeply cut by a blade is still maintained at approximately 70%–96% depending on the incident wave frequency. The present work provides a new way for designing structural materials with concurrently enhanced mechanical and functional properties, and a path to combine structural design and intrinsic properties of specific materials via a biomimetic strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractClay platelets/cellulose nanofibril nanocomposites are recyclable engineering materials of interest for sustainable development. There is substantial experimental data for mechanical properties, but modeling efforts are scarce. Here, a conceptual unit cell with voids was used in finite element modeling. Predictions for the in-plane modulus taking voids into account were more accurate than the classical rule of mixtures. Simulations also reveal that the cellulosic matrix undergoes shear and tensile deformation with inclined fracture located near the end of platelets for low clay content while predicting brittle tensile failure for high clay content. The results from the unit cell approach provide improved understanding of experimental observations, supporting the strive to better understand mechanisms of deformation and fracture.

Clay platelets/cellulose nanofibril nanocomposites are recyclable engineering materials of interest for sustainable development. There is substantial experimental data for mechanical properties, but modeling efforts are scarce. Here, a conceptual unit cell with voids was used in finite element modeling. Predictions for the in-plane modulus taking voids into account were more accurate than the classical rule of mixtures. Simulations also reveal that the cellulosic matrix undergoes shear and tensile deformation with inclined fracture located near the end of platelets for low clay content while predicting brittle tensile failure for high clay content. The results from the unit cell approach provide improved understanding of experimental observations, supporting the strive to better understand mechanisms of deformation and fracture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A strong graphene oxide (GO)-based artificial nacre is developed by using a simple and efficient interfacial chemistry. GO is simultaneously reduced and functionalized with tannic acid (TA) and the resulting TA-reduced GO (TA-RGO) exhibits a high aqueous dispersibility owing to abundant phenol groups. TA-RGO sheets are incorporated with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and then assembled into an artificial nacre-like structure by vacuum-assisted filtration to induce the formation of multidentate interfacial hydrogen bonding between TA-RGO and PVA. Based on the multidentate hydrogen bonding, the resulting TA-RGO/PVA (1 wt%) composite film presented an overall and efficient reinforcement of tensile strength (186.1 ± 12.8 MPa), modulus (15.2 ± 1.2 GPa) and toughness (1546 ± 248 kJ/m3) compared to those of GO (83.3 ± 5.4 MPa, 8.9 ± 0.4 GPa and 1434 ± 152 kJ/m3) and TA-RGO (87.6 ± 10.6 MPa, 13.8 ± 1.4 GPa and 306 ± 51 kJ/m3), respectively. The present study demonstrates the rational design of interfacial interaction can greatly improve the performance of a structural composite material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of armour systems with higher ballistic resistance and light weight has gained considerable attention as an increasing number of countries are recognising the need to build up advanced self-defence system to deter potential military conflicts and threats. Graphene is a two dimensional one-atom thick nanomaterial which possesses excellent tensile strength (130 GPa) and specific penetration energy (10 times higher than steel). It is also lightweight, tough and stiff and is expected to replace the current aramid fibre-based polymer composites. Currently, insights derived from the study of the nacre (natural armour system) are finding applications on the development of artificial nacre structures using graphene-based materials that can achieve high toughness and energy dissipation. The aim of this review is to discuss the potential of graphene-based nanomaterials with regard to the penetration energy, toughness and ballistic limit for personal body armour applications. This review addresses the cutting-edge research in the ballistic performance of graphene-based materials through theoretical, experimentation as well as simulations. The influence of fabrication techniques and interfacial interactions of graphene-based bioinspired polymer composites for ballistic application are also discussed. This review also covers the artificial nacre which is shown to exhibit superior mechanical and toughness behaviours.

Nacre, the iridescent material found in the innermost layer of seashells, having high strength and toughness was obtained from relatively weak constituents. The excellent mechanical performance of this biological material originates from its hierarchically ordered arrangement of well-tailored hard and soft building blocks. Incorporating these structures into composites is as alluring as conventional engineering materials often sacrifice strength to improve toughness. The unique mechanical properties originated from multiscale deformation regime involving solid-state self-organization process lead efficient energy dissipation which leads to high toughness, these multiscale biological assemblies inspire new synthesis route of complex materials. In this review, we study various mechanisms involved in toughening, methods used in mimicking nacre structure and various strategies for fabricating nacreous architecture which has gleaned new avenues for self-standing, strong, and advanced toughened material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The hierarchical interfacial architecture of nacre inspires the fabrication of novel high performance graphene‐based nanocomposites. Graphene has great promise for applications in aerospace and especially for flexible electronic devices, etc., due to its remarkable mechanical and electrical properties. Thus, it is significant to summarize the role of interface interactions in the construction of nacre‐inspired graphene‐based nanocomposites, which is the distinctive characteristic and important scientific progress of the review. This review first makes a comparison for the interfacial architecture of above biological materials and finds inspiration from nacre to design the interface in graphene‐based nanocomposites, which contains single interface interaction, synergistic interface interactions, and synergistic building blocks. Then, the focus is attached to the effect of different interfacial design strategies on the mechanical and electrical properties of state‐of‐the‐art GO‐based artificial nacres (GANs), including 1D fibers, 2D films, and 3D bulk materials. Additionally, the multifunctional GANs with such functions as fatigue resistance, fire retardant property, and smart nanogating, etc. are also discussed. Moreover, some potential applications and corresponding challenges and solutions of GANs are detailedly summarized. Finally, from the views of theoretical simulation and experimental research, a perspective on the roadmap of GANs in the future is also proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nacre has got great research interest in the excellent mechanical properties due to its "brick-motar" layered structure and the synergistic toughening mechanisms between organic and inorganic components. The construction of "brick-motar" structure of nacre has become a hot topic for researchers to obtain composite materials with more outstanding mechanical properties. In this paper, vacuum filtration strategy was adopted to fabricate nanocomposite artificial nacre of graphene oxide and polyacrylic acid (GO-FAA). By Optimizing the mass ratio of GO to PAA,GO-PAA with stronger mechanical properties were achieved. Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) ,X ray diffraction (XRD) and raman test results showed that the layered structure of GO changed with the incorporation of PAA into GO layers. The cross-section scanning electron microscopy image showed that the composite showed typical brick-and-motar" hierarchical nacre structure. The formation of this unique layered structure significantly improves the mechanical properties of graphene oxide based composites. In addition, hydrogen bonding between GO and FAA has a certain synergistic toughening effect. Among them,when the concentration of Go is 80 wt% ,the tensile strength of GO-PAA films can reach 99. 13 MPa, the maximum toughness can reach 1. 50 MJ/m3 and the young's modulus comes up to 6. 08 GPa. This composite is promising for applications in the fields of aerospace and civil engineering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A facile, inexpensive, and green approach for the production of stable graphene dispersion was proposed in this study. We fabricated soy protein isolate (SPI)-based nanocomposite films with the combination of 2D negative charged graphene and 1D positive charged polyethyleneimine (PEI)-modified cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) via a layer-by-layer assembly method. The morphologies and surface charges of graphene sheets and CNC segments were characterized by atomic force microscopy and Zeta potential measurements. The hydrogen bonds and multiple interface interactions between the filler and SPI matrix were analyzed by Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared spectra and X-ray diffraction patterns. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated the cross-linked and laminated structures in the fracture surface of the films. In comparison with the unmodified SPI film, the tensile strength and surface contact angles of the SPI/graphene/PEI-CNC film were significantly improved, by 99.73% and 37.13% respectively. The UV-visible light barrier ability, water resistance, and thermal stability were also obviously enhanced. With these improved functional properties, this novel bio-nanocomposite film showed considerable potential for application for food packaging materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The remarkable mechanical performance of biological materials such as bone, nacre, and spider silk stems from their staggered microstructure in which stiff and strong reinforcements are elongated in the direction of loading, separated by softer interfaces, and shifted relative to each other. This structure results in useful combinations of modulus, strength and toughness and therefore is increasingly mimicked in bio-inspired engineering composites. Here, we report the use of a simple and versatile technique based on doctor-blading to fabricate staggered composites of microscopic alumina tablets with high alignment in a chitosan matrix. Tensile tests on these nacre-like materials show that the modulus and strength of the composite films are enhanced by the incorporation of ceramic tablets, but only up to 15 vol% after which all properties degrade. This phenomenon, also reported in the past for most of nacre-like materials, composed of micro/nano tablets, obtained from different techniques, has been limiting our ability to produce large volumes of high-performance nacre-like materials. Examination of the structure of the films revealed that at lower tablet concentrations the tablets are well-aligned and well dispersed thorough the volume of the film. At 15 vol% and beyond, we observed tablet misalignment and clustering. In order to investigate the impact of these imperfections on material performance we developed large scale finite element models representative of the structure of the composite films. These models show that the mechanical performance significantly degrades with tablet misalignment, and especially at high tablet concentrations. The simulations along with the SEM images therefore quantitatively explain the experimental trends, e.g. the degradation of mechanical properties at high tablet contents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Alumina platelet reinforced epoxy matrix composites with an architecture resembling to natural nacre were fabricated by a hybrid conventional method called Hot-press Assisted Slip Casting process (HASC). Correlation between processing parameters, platelet content, platelet orientation and mechanical property enhancement of the fabricated composites was examined. In order to investigate the effect of interfacial compatibility and bonding on the mechanical properties of the fabricated inorganic–organic composites, platelet surfaces were modified with both epoxy- and amino-functional silanes. As received and functionalized platelet surfaces were studied by X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) to confirm the success of surface modification. Fabricated bio-inspired bulk lamellar composite materials were characterized in terms of their microstructural architecture and mechanical properties. The results obtained indicated that HASC processed composites exhibit enhanced flexural strength, stiffness and hardness, as compared to neat epoxy and composites fabricated by simple mixing, as a result of their nacre-like architecture with well aligned platelets. It has been also observed that functionalization by both type of silanes improves interfacial adhesion between platelets and epoxy matrix resulting in further enhancement of the mechanical properties of bulk lamellar composites fabricated by HASC. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Inspired by natural nacre, layered composites based on graphene oxide (GO) and 10,12‐pentacosadiyn‐1‐ol (PCDO) have been successfully fabricated. PCDO molecules are grafted onto GO sheets and cross‐linked with each other, resulting in a superior toughness that is two times higher than that of the natural nacre. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Taking advantage of the specific behaviour of Na/Ca montmorillonite in aqueous dispersion, textured films were prepared by progressive evaporation of dispersions with low concentrations of delaminated platelets. The increase of the concentration of ions during evaporation changes the nature of the clay mineral platelet face interactions from repulsive to attractive. After complete drying, a dense brick-like structure is obtained when a sodium salt is used as deflocculant. The bending strength of the textured film is strongly affected by cracks formation during drying, specially when the sample thickness increases. After optimisation, crack-free textured samples with a 140μm thickness, 20cm×25cm area and 120MPa bending strength were obtained. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A multi-modally interactive interface is investigated to develop a strong structural material based on hybridization of graphene oxide (GO) and tannic acid (TA) through cross-linking with coordination and covalent bonds. GO is reduced and functionalized with TA by a simple wet-chemical reaction. The resulting TA-reduced and functionalized GO (TA-RGO) sheets are macroscopically assembled into lamellar structured paper like artificial nacre by vacuum-assisted filtration. The assembled TA-RGO paper is sequentially cross-linked by Fe3+ ion and polyethyleneimine (PEI) to form a strong interface through multimodal interactions such as hydrogen bonding, covalent bonding, coordination and π-π interactions. The suspended, assembled and cross-linked TA-RGO sheets are systematically characterized by various analytical tools. By forming the multimodal interactions, the tensile strength, modulus and toughness of GO paper were enhanced from 59.5 ± 4.1 MPa, 7.8 ± 1.4 GPa, and 765 ± 112 kJ/m3 to 167.7 ± 15.4 MPa, 17.6 ± 0.4 GPa, and 1484 ± 192 kJ/m3, respectively. Based on the results, we clearly demonstrated TA can be harnessed as a multifunctional agent for reducing, functionalizing and cross-linking RGO sheets to construct a strong structural material by forming multi-modally interactive interfaces. [Display omitted] • Tannic acid (TA) is used to reduce, modify, and cross-link graphene oxide (GO). • TA-reduced GO paper is sequentially cross-linked with Fe3+ and polyethyleneimine. • The cross-linking reinforces their mechanical property with multiple interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Composite materials designed by nature, such as nacre, can display unique mechanical properties and have therefore been often mimicked by scientists. In this work, we prepared composite materials mimicking the nacre structure in two steps. First, we synthesized a silica gel skeleton with a layered structure using a bottom-up approach by modifying a sol-gel synthesis. Magnetic colloids were added to the sol solution, and a rotating magnetic field was applied during the sol-gel transition. When exposed to a rotating magnetic field, magnetic colloids organize in layers parallel to the plane of rotation of the field and template the growing silica phase, resulting in a layered anisotropic silica network mimicking the nacre's inorganic phase. Heat treatment has been applied to further harden the silica monoliths. The final nacre-inspired composite is created by filling the porous structure with a monomer, leading to a soft elastomer upon polymerization. Compression tests of the platelet-structured composite show that the mechanical properties of the nacre-like composite material far exceed those of nonstructured composite materials with an identical chemical composition. Increased toughness and a nearly 10-fold increase in Young's modulus were achieved. The natural brittleness and low elastic deformation of silica monoliths could be overcome by mimicking the natural architecture of nacre. Pattern recognition obtained with a classification of machine learning algorithms was applied to achieve a better understanding of the physical and chemical parameters that have the highest impact on the mechanical properties of the monoliths. Multivariate statistical analysis was performed to show that the structural control and the heat treatment have a very strong influence on the mechanical properties of the monoliths.

The development of armour systems with higher ballistic resistance and light weight has gained considerable attention as an increasing number of countries are recognising the need to build up advanced self-defence system to deter potential military conflicts and threats. Graphene is a two dimensional one-atom thick nanomaterial which possesses excellent tensile strength (130 GPa) and specific penetration energy (10 times higher than steel). It is also lightweight, tough and stiff and is expected to replace the current aramid fibre-based polymer composites. Currently, insights derived from the study of the nacre (natural armour system) are finding applications on the development of artificial nacre structures using graphene-based materials that can achieve high toughness and energy dissipation. The aim of this review is to discuss the potential of graphene-based nanomaterials with regard to the penetration energy, toughness and ballistic limit for personal body armour applications. This review addresses the cutting-edge research in the ballistic performance of graphene-based materials through theoretical, experimentation as well as simulations. The influence of fabrication techniques and interfacial interactions of graphene-based bioinspired polymer composites for ballistic application are also discussed. This review also covers the artificial nacre which is shown to exhibit superior mechanical and toughness behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A bioinspired boron nitride nanosheet (BNNS)/gelatin nanocomposite consisting of hierarchically aligned layered BNNSs bonded with gelatin is fabricated by using electrostatic interactions between the oppositely charged functional groups on gelatin and the BNNSs. To enhance the self‐assembly and interfacial bond strength between these entities, the BNNSs are functionalized using hyperbranched polyglycerol. The 2D alignment of the BNNSs can be controlled by increasing the amount of BNNSs, or by a functionalization process, both of which result in transformation of the nanoscale structure from a randomly oriented to a brick‐and‐mortar structure. The mechanical properties of the resulting nanocomposite material, including the strength and modulus, are controlled by changing the composition of BNNSs and gelatin in the nanocomposite and by modifying the degree of alignment of the BNNSs in the material. This tuning of the mechanical properties yields a material whose performance resembles that of human cortical bone. In vitro cell viability experiments on the BNNSs/gelatin nanocomposite reveal that this artificial nacre supports adhesion, viability, and proliferation of adipose‐derived stem cells, all of which are essential for biomedical applications. Mechanical and biological testing of the material suggests applications of artificial nacre in biomedical fields and for tissue regeneration. Through a vacuum‐assisted self‐assembly process, boron nitride nanosheets (BNNSs) and gelatin are assembled into bioinspired nacre‐like structures with controllable mechanical and biological properties, while varying the amount of BNNS in the nanocomposite material. Furthermore, functionalization by hyperbranched polyglycerol further enhances the mechanical properties of the artificial nacre, whose performance resembles that of human cortical bone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A facile, inexpensive, and green approach for the production of stable graphene dispersion was proposed in this study. We fabricated soy protein isolate (SPI)-based nanocomposite films with the combination of 2D negative charged graphene and 1D positive charged polyethyleneimine (PEI)-modified cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) via a layer-by-layer assembly method. The morphologies and surface charges of graphene sheets and CNC segments were characterized by atomic force microscopy and Zeta potential measurements. The hydrogen bonds and multiple interface interactions between the filler and SPI matrix were analyzed by Attenuated Total Reflectance⁻Fourier Transform Infrared spectra and X-ray diffraction patterns. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated the cross-linked and laminated structures in the fracture surface of the films. In comparison with the unmodified SPI film, the tensile strength and surface contact angles of the SPI/graphene/PEI-CNC film were significantly improved, by 99.73% and 37.13% respectively. The UV⁻visible light barrier ability, water resistance, and thermal stability were also obviously enhanced. With these improved functional properties, this novel bio-nanocomposite film showed considerable potential for application for food packaging materials., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nacre-inspired nanocomposites have attracted a great deal of attention in recent years because of their special mechanical properties and universality of the underlying principles of materials engineering. The ability to respond to external stimuli will augment the high toughness and high strength of artificial nacre-like composites and open new technological horizons for these materials. Herein, we fabricated robust artificial nacre based on montmorillonite (MMT) that combines robustness with reversible thermochromism. Our artificial nacre shows great potential in various fields such as aerospace and sensors and opens an avenue to fabricate artificial nacre responsive to other external stimuli in the future.

Demands for high strength integrated materials have substantially increased across various kinds of industries. Inspired by the relationship of excellent integration of mechanical properties and hierarchical nano/microscale structure of the natural nacre, a simple and facile method to fabricate high strength integrated artificial nacre based on sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and borate cross-linked graphene oxide (GO) sheets has been developed. The tensile strength and toughness of cellulose-based hybrid material reached 480.5 ± 13.1 MPa and 11.8 ± 0.4 MJm -3 by a facile in situ reduction and cross-linking reaction between CMC and GO (0.7%), which are 3.55 and 6.55 times that of natural nacre. This hybrid film exhibits better thermal stability and flame retardancy. More interestingly, the hybrid material showed good water stability compared to that in the original water-soluble CMC. This type of hybrid has great potential applications in aerospace, artificial muscle, and tissue engineering.

An artificial nacre based on graphene oxide sheets is presented by Q. F. Cheng, M. Z. Li, Z. Y. Tang et al. in their Communication on page 3750 ff. This ultratough material shows excellent mechanical properties and a hierarchical microstructure. The bioinspired strategy involves a new concept for fabricating artificial nacre for such applications as aerospace, flexible supercapacitor electrodes, artificial muscles, and tissue engineering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphene is the strongest and stiffest material, leading to the development of promising applications in many fields. However, the assembly of graphene nanosheets into macrosized nanocomposites for practical applications remains a challenge. Nacre in its natural form sets the "gold standard" for toughness and strength, which serves as a guide to the assembly of graphene nanosheets into high-performance nanocomposites. Here we show the strong, tough, conductive artificial nacre based on graphene oxide through synergistic interactions of hydrogen and covalent bonding. Tensile strength and toughness was 4 and 10 times higher, respectively, than that of natural nacre. The exceptional integrated strong and tough artificial nacre has promising applications in aerospace, artificial muscle, and tissue engineering, especially for flexible supercapacitor electrodes due to its high electrical conductivity. The use of synergistic interactions is a strategy for the development of high-performance nanocomposites.

A crucial requirement for most engineering materials is the excellent balance of strength and toughness. By mimicking the hybrid hierarchical structure in nacre, a kind of nacre-like paper based on binary hybrid graphene oxide (GO)/sodium alginate (SA) building blocks has been successfully fabricated. Systematic evaluation for the mechanical property in different (dry/wet) environment/after thermal annealing shows a perfect combination of high strength and toughness. Both of the parameters are nearly many-times higher than those of similar materials because of the synergistic strengthening/toughening enhancement from the binary GO/SA hybrids. The successful fabrication route offers an excellent approach to design advanced strong integrated nacre-like composite materials, which can be applied in tissue engineering, protection, aerospace, and permeable membranes for separation and delivery.

Metals can be strengthened by adding hard reinforcements, but such strategy usually compromises ductility and toughness. Natural nacre consists of hard and soft phases organized in a regular "brick-and-mortar" structure and exhibits a superior combination of mechanical strength and toughness, which is an attractive model for strengthening and toughening artificial composites, but such bioinspired metal matrix composite has yet to be made. Here we prepared nacre-like reduced graphene oxide (RGrO) reinforced Cu matrix composite based on a preform impregnation process, by which two-dimensional RGrO was used as "brick" and inserted into "□-and-mortar" ordered porous Cu preform (the symbol "□" means the absence of "brick"), followed by compacting. This process realized uniform dispersion and alignment of RGrO in Cu matrix simultaneously. The RGrO-and-Cu artificial nacres exhibited simultaneous enhancement on yield strength and ductility as well as increased modulus, attributed to RGrO strengthening, effective crack deflection and a possible combined failure mode of RGrO. The artificial nacres also showed significantly higher strengthening efficiency than other conventional Cu matrix composites, which might be related to the alignment of RGrO.

Artificial nacre-like composite films of graphene oxide (GO) with a variety of commercially available water-soluble polymers were fabricated by a gel-film transformation (GFT) technique. The blending of a polymer into the aqueous dispersion of GO can modulate the interaction between GO sheets. Typically, the attraction force between polymer and GO sheets overcomes the dominant hydration and electrostatic repulsive forces between GO sheets, promoting the gelation of GO. Cast drying the resultant GO hydrogel containing small amounts of polymer (1-20 wt % relative to GO depending on the intrinsic structures of polymers) generates layered GO composite films with tensile strengths over 200 MPa and failure strains larger than 3.0%, which are higher than those of natural nacre and most nacre-like GO films. These results indicate that GO/polymer composite hydrogels are excellent precursors for nacre-like GO films and that the GFT approach is a general route toward the large-scale fabrication of nacre-like GO films with unique combinations of high strength and high toughness.

Demands of the strong integrated materials have substantially increased across various industries. Inspired by the relationship of excellent integration of mechanical properties and hierarchical nano/microscale structure of the natural nacre, we have developed a strategy for fabricating the strong integrated artificial nacre based on graphene oxide (GO) sheets by dopamine cross-linking via evaporation-induced assembly process. The tensile strength and toughness simultaneously show 1.5 and 2 times higher than that of natural nacre. Meanwhile, the artificial nacre shows high electrical conductivity. This type of strong integrated artificial nacre has great potential applications in aerospace, flexible supercapacitor electrodes, artificial muscle, and tissue engineering.