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The HIsarna process is one of the emerging technologies for reducing the carbon footprint of the ironmaking process, which is currently in the pilot plant stage. A kinetic HIsarna process simulation model based on the effective equilibrium reaction zone concept has been developed using the FactSage macro programming facility to advance understanding of the whole process. In the model, the HIsarna process is conceptually divided into various equilibrium zones involving combustion, coal pyrolysis and gasification, gas/slag/carbon reactions, and slag/metal reaction. The model has been validated through the pilot plant data, and the results are in good agreement with the quantity and composition of hot metal, slag, and gas. The HIsarna off-gas stream with high CO2 content can potentially allow capture and storage directly for carbon mitigation. The utilization of titanium magnetite ore in the HIsarna process has also been investigated via the developed model. The injection of titanium magnetite ore which has high FeO content decreases coal consumption. Still, it increases the slag volume as higher gangue content when keeping the same productivity as the pilot plant trial. The HIsarna process shows promising potential in using low-quality high titania iron ore as feed materials, but the slag system needs to be further optimized. From the heat distribution, the off-gas sensible heat accounts for a large part of the input heat due to its high temperature but can be recovered with good efficiency. The present model is an efficient tool for understanding the HIsarna process and providing theoretical guidance for future pilot research.

Impurities (Cu, Sn, Cr, and Ni) have been added to a low-carbon formable strip steel to simulate the scenario of increased use of scrap during steel production. Texture evolution during annealing of the cold-rolled base steel and impurity-added steel have been investigated. The impurities were shown to suppress the development of the γ-fiber texture. Meanwhile, a higher fraction of random orientations was developed in the impurity-added steel. However, the adverse effect of impurities on the γ-fiber was mitigated during annealing at higher temperatures (650 °C to 750 °C). The correlation between texture development and microstructure heterogeneity, and the effect of impurity additions on texture development are discussed. This work provides guidelines on recycling scrap for the production of low-carbon formable steels.

To investigate the reduction behaviour of different reductants such as charcoal (CC), thermal coal (TC), and carbon black (CB) with HIsarna slag, a series of isothermal reduction experiments were performed in a vertical tube resistance furnace (VTF), coupled with a Quadrupole mass spectrometer (QMS) at 1450 °C, 1475 °C and 1500 °C. The results confirm that the highest overall reduction rate was achieved by CC, followed by TC and CB. The reduction mechanism between FeO containing molten slag and the selected carbonaceous materials is determined by studying the morphology of the water quenched samples at the intervals of 1.5, 3 and 5 minutes, using optical and scanning electron microscopes. The results reveal that the overall reaction is controlled by two main mechanisms: (1) nucleation and growth of CO bubbles, proceeded by the gaseous intermediates CO and CO2; and (2) diffusion of FeO in the molten slag. The initial reduction period in which chemical reaction control is dominant, can be described by the Avrami–Erofeev model, whereas the final period is described by the three-dimensional diffusion model.

The titanium industry can hardly bypass the titania-containing slags, and the slag physicochemical properties are essential in the metallurgical reactor design and process control. The TiO2-FeO based slags and TiO2-SiO2-CaO based slags are the main metallurgical slag systems in the titanium resource utilization processes. To elaborate the role of TiO2 in the physicochemical properties of titania-containing metallurgical slags, the physicochemical properties including titanium redox ratio, liquidus temperature, viscosity, electrical conductivity, density, surface tension, thermal conductivity, and sulfide capacity were critically reviewed. Moreover, the property prediction models were briefly introduced with regards to the limitations of the existing models. The properties prediction models are still required to evolve since not all properties of titania-containing slags can be well modelled. As the slag structure has an intimate relationship with slag properties, the structural details of the titania-containing slag were investigated by using a combination of spectroscopic technologies, but the knowledge of the slag structure was not fully ascertained. The potential research fields related to the physicochemical properties and structure of the titania-containing slags were also suggested.

Recent demand on welding fluxes for high-strength low-alloy steel grades has necessitated the development of CaF2-free fluxes towards high heat input applications. To meet such requirements, a flux design strategy has been postulated by varying MnO/(CaF2 + MnO) mass ratio in the CaF2–SiO2–MnO flux system. The effect of MnO substitution for CaF2 on the flux viscosity and structure has been investigated, and a quantitative relationship between viscosity and structural units has been put forward. In addition, it has been suggested that the degree of polymerization (DOP) of silicate network is reduced with increasing MnO/(CaF2 + MnO) mass ratio, indicating MnO plays the role of network-breaker. The spectra of F1s and 19F prove that F− predominantly bonds with Ca2+ rather than Si4+, revealing CaF2 acts as a diluent and does not effectively depolymerize the silicate network. Linear correlations can be obtained between the logarithm viscosity and the average non-bridging oxygen per silicon atom (NBO/Si), which can potentially be used as a DOP index to quantify the impact of silicate structure on the viscosity of the flux.

Bubble evolution behaviors have been thoroughly documented from the solidified slags detached from EH36 shipbuilding steel weld metals processed by CaO–Al2O3–SiO2–CaF2 fluxes. As the CaF2 content decreases, bubble retention tendency attenuates, which is largely rendered by the disappearance of fluorite and cuspidine and the formation capacity of amorphous phases. Thermodynamic calculations show that bubbles are mostly induced by the synergistic effect of decreased amount of CaF2(g) and increased amount of SiO(g).\ud \ud

This work investigates the melting behaviour of iron ore with calcium-based fluxes, including lime, limestone and basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steelmaking slag. With an aim to explore the potential kinetic benefits that can be obtained through the formation of a liquid medium on the overall productivity of HIsarna. A HT-CLSM was used to rapidly heat and observation the interface between a given pair of chosen materials in-situ. Through this method, the rate at which the reaction progressed and the possible disruptive phenomenon that may occur was observed directly. The molten interface of fluxed materials is compared against each other offering insight into relative dissolution rate. Each flux shows promise of increasing ore fluidity to a varying degree with limestone generating above a 60% liquid fraction in the 1400°C reaction temperature.\ud \ud

Crystallization behaviors of CaF2-TiO2 fluxes with varying TiO2 contents from 10 to 40 wt.% for high heat input submerged arc welding application have been systematically investigated by using single hot thermocouple technique (SHTT), field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). It is demonstrated that, as a function of the TiO2 content, the crystallization temperature initially decreases (from 10 to 30 wt.%) but increases afterwards (>30 wt.%), while the incubation time follows an opposite trend. It has been confirmed that CaTiO3 and CaF2 are the two dominant precipitated phases. It is further shown that the growth of CaTiO3 crystals follows a three-dimensional pattern while that of CaF2 a two-dimensional one. The effective activation energy is the highest when the TiO2 content is 30 wt.%, indicating the greatest barrier to crystallize and the highest capability to achieve the most desired production of amorphous welding fluxes for high heat input applications.

Casting powders or mold fluxes, as they are more commonly known, are used in the continuous casting of steel to prevent the steel shell from sticking to the copper mold. The powders first melt and create a pool of liquid flux above the liquid steel in the mold, and then the liquid mold fluxes penetrate into the gap between water-cooled copper mold and steel shell, where crystallization of solid phases takes place as the temperatures gradually drop. It is important to understand the crystallization behavior of these mold fluxes used in the continuous casting of steel because the crystalline phase fraction in the slag films plays a crucial role in determining the horizontal heat flux during the casting process. In this work, the existing literature on the crystallization kinetics of conventional and fluoride-free mold fluxes used in the continuous casting of steel has been reviewed. The review has been divided into two main sections viz. the isothermal crystallization kinetics and non-isothermal crystallization kinetics. Under each of these sections, three of the most widely used techniques for studying the crystallization kinetics have been included viz. thermoanalytical techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry/differential thermal analysis (DSC/DTA), the single and double hot thermocouple technique (SHTT and DHTT), and the confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM). For each of these techniques, the available literature related to the crystallization kinetics of mold fluxes has been summarized thereby encompassing a wide range of investigations comprising of both conventional and fluoride-free fluxes. Summaries have been included after each section with critical comments and insights by the authors. Finally, the relative merits and demerits of these methods vis-à-vis their application in studying the crystallization kinetics of mold fluxes have been discussed.

There is a growing drive within the steel industry to increase scrap usage in the Blast Furnace (BF)-Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) integrated route and extend the scrapbased Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) route for steel production due to the resultant reduced energy costs and CO 2 emissions and the abundant steel scrap supply in the UK. In general, steel scrap may contain high levels of undesirable residual elements, which may have pronounced effects on the casting process of steel production. This article critically reviews current metallurgical understanding about the behaviour of various residual elements (such as P, S, Si, Mn, Cu, Sn, Pb, Nb, Ti, V), individually and synergistically at high (> 1200 o C) and low (< 1200 o C) temperatures during the casting process, with a focus on local enrichment and cracking caused by the residual elements. This review article aims to help the steel community to increase the utilisation of steel scrap for steel production by identifying the current constraints and opportunities.

Plain strain deformation trials were carried out on samples of pipeline steels at 1473 K, 1673 K and 1723 K, respectively. The deformation of inclusions in the solid steel at different temperatures and in the semi-solid steel was studied. The composition of inclusions changed from 60.62%Al2O3–16.10%CaO–10.27%MgO–13.01%CaS before deformation to 60.59%Al2O3–13.03%CaO–12.74%MgO–13.63%CaS, 59.69%Al2O3–7.04%CaO–11.51%MgO–21.76%CaS, and 68.26%Al2O3–22.56%CaO–6.68%MgO–2.5%CaS with corresponding deforming temperatures of 1473 K, 1673 K and 1723 K. While the average aspect ratio of inclusions increased from 1.28 to 2.23, 1.32, and 1.35, respectively. Thermodynamic calculations performed by FactSage 7.0 verified the composition transformation from CaO to CaS during the solidification and cooling process of the steel. A kinetic model was used to calculate the dynamic transformation of the inclusion composition at compression temperatures. The inclusion transformation ratio from CaO to CaS increased from 38.28% at 1473 K to 50.50% at 1673 K. For the deformation in the solid steel at the temperature below 1673 K, the thickness of the hard phase CaS increased with the soaking temperature, while the hardness of the steel matrix decreased. The larger hardness difference between inclusions and the steel matrix led to a higher aspect ratio of inclusions after deformation. For the deformation in the semi-solid steel, the small difference of hardness between the soft inclusion phase and the soft steel matrix resulted in a low aspect ratio of inclusions in the semi-solid steel after deformation.

The most popular aluminium alloy used for the automotive applications is the wrought-Al alloy, where its popularity arises from its intrinsic characteristics such as, excellent formability, crash resistance, corrosion resistance and excellent specific strength. In the coming decades the use of aluminium alloys is expected to increase within automotive and aerospace industries, where this will source for an upsurge in Al recycling. Problems arise during Al recycling, where there is a steady build-up of Fe content, as this is recognised as being an impurity element. Fe has very little solubility in Al in its solid state and precipitation of these Fe intermetallics (IMC), in the Al matrix decrease mechanical properties, due to the Fe IMC brittle nature. These Fe-rich IMC also have very little cohesion to the Al matrix and can separate from the Al matrix resulting in the development of voids, where the initiation of microcracks becomes ostensible when subjected to thermomechanical processing. In order to curtail the damaging effect of the Fe IMC it so of importance to alter the nucleation and growth characteristic of the Fe rich IMC during solidification. Addition of trace elements and the manipulation of cooling rates have shown to be an effective technique to alter the Fe IMC morphology. In order observe the morphological evolution of the Fe IMC, various experiments were conducted using Al-1Si-1Mg-1Fe alloy with the addition of Mn and TiB2-based commercial grain refiner. Microstructural analysis of the primary α-Al and Fe IMC are observed and the morphological evolution of the Fe IMC is analysed with respects to the addition of Mn and TiB2. How the addition of these trace elements influence the growth characteristics and chemistry of the Al melt is also presented in this work.

The transient trajectory taken for a system striving toward equilibration has consequences on the rate of processes and on the chemical and physical state of products in metallurgical processes. A case study approach to recent advancements in liquid steel processing is given. A combination of techniques and knowledge developed is given as a targeted showcase of the authors’ contributions to the understanding of liquid metal droplet reactions and their contribution to the large-scale production processes within the steel industry. Examples relevant to novel ironmaking technologies, oxygen steelmaking, ladle metallurgy, and continuous casting are discussed, showing the range of processes that benefit from greater understanding in this area. This article considers specifically the reaction of liquid ferrous droplets, immersed in molten oxides, involving key alloying components, including phosphorus, aluminum, and carbon. The studies use high-temperature–confocal scanning laser microscopy (HT-CSLM), X-ray computed tomography (XCT), phase-field modeling, and in situ limited angle X-ray imaging. These techniques have seen significant development over recent years, and the combination of these powerful tools reveals the occurrence of spontaneous emulsification driven by chemical reaction (in the case of oxygen/phosphorus/aluminum reactions) and gas-phase formation (in the case of decarburization) both internally and externally to a steel droplet. A key finding is that the interfacial area pertinent for the heterogenous reactions to occur changes considerably (by up to an order of magnitude) depending on the chemical driving force. Additional key findings include the shift between preferential internal and external gas nucleation during decarburization, an inflection point of behavior as to whether or not spontaneous emulsification will occur (within the study discussed, this is between 3 and 4 wt pct Al) and the pathway of perturbation growth through which spontaneous emulsification occurs, including the physical maxima a perturbation will grow to before breaking away from the parent droplet.

To evaluate the potential of using renewable biomass in the novel HIsarna technology, reactivity of thermal coal (TC), charcoal (CC), Bana grass char (BGC) before and after rapid devolatilization at 1500 °C in a drop tube furnace (DTF) was investigated. Thermogravimetric (TG) was used for CO2 gasification study, and high temperature confocal scanning laser microscope (HT-CSLM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to characterise the morphology of all three raw carbonaceous materials and their chars produced by rapid devolatilization. CC has fastest gasification reaction before and after rapid heat treatment, and BGC raw is more reactive than TC raw but BGC 1500 °C and TC 1500 °C have very similar gasification behaviour. The reactivity index of the rapidly devolatilized char is reduced to 84.21% (BGC), 92.11% (TC) and 94.23% (CC) compared to their raw materials. This shows that BGC is more severely affected by the rapid devolatilization, and this behaviour is likely to be governed by the high ash content which will melt and cause pore blockage during heat treatment. According to HT-CSLM results the average particle sizes decreased by 28%, 24% and 20 % for TC, CC and BGC respectively. While the SEM images shown that TC has gone through significant structural changes during the rapid devolatilization, but CC and BGC maintained their parent structural shapes. The BET results indicate that TC is non-porous, but both CC and BGC contain a large number of constricted micropores with significantly larger surface area.

Impurity elements of Cu, Ni, Sn and Cr have been added to a model low-carbon strip steel to mimic the levels that could arise due to increased scrap recycling during steel production. The microstructure and tensile properties of the base composition and impurity added compositions after thermomechanical processing, consisting of hot rolling and simulated coil cooling, have been investigated. The addition of impurities results in a lower bainite fraction, a smaller effective grain size and the precipitation of Cu-rich particles. Meanwhile, higher strength and lower ductility are found in the steel with impurities.

Al2O3, Al2O3·TiN, Al2O3·MgO, and CaO·2Al2O3 are four different types of inclusions in high Al steels. To improve the steel cleanness level, the effective removal of such inclusions during secondary refining is very important, so these inclusions should be removed effectively via inclusion dissolution in the slag. The dissolution behavior of Al2O3, Al2O3·TiN, Al2O3·MgO, and CaO·2Al2O3 in CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-MgO slags, as well as the steel-slag reaction, was investigated using laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) and high-temperature furnace experiments, and thermodynamic calculations for the inclusion in steel were carried out by FactSage 7.1. The results showed that Al2O3·TiN was observed to be completely different from the other oxides. The composite oxides dissolved quickly in the slags, and the dissolution time of the inclusions increased as their melting point increased. SiO2 and B2O3 in the slag were almost completely reacted with [Al] in steel, so the slags without SiO2 showed a positive effect for avoiding the formation of Al2O3 system inclusions and promoting inclusions dissolution as compared with SiO2-rich slags. The steel-slag reaction was also found to influence the inclusion types in steel significantly. Because of the rapid absorption of different inclusions in the slag, it was found that the dissolution time of inclusions mainly depends on the diffusion in the molten slag.

Surface oxidation of metallic powders may significantly affect their melting and solidification behavior and limit their service life in the additive manufacturing (AM) process. In the present work, three levels of surface oxide concentration were prepared on AM-grade 316L stainless steel powders, and their melting and solidification behavior was systematically studied through in-situ observation, advanced characterization, phase-field modeling, and theoretical analysis. Si, Mn, and Cr participated in the oxidation reaction in powder with low and medium oxygen contents, whereas Fe was involved in the oxidation reaction for the powder samples with high oxygen content. A higher full melting temperature is observed to lead to an integrated melt pool in the melting of the highly oxidized powder, which is due to the reduced permeability produced by the oxide cage effect. For the droplet samples prepared from high oxygen powders, the inclusion with increased volume fraction and coarsened size is attributed to the agglomeration of inclusion particles with the residual oxide in the melt. In the high oxygen powder fusion scenario, an undesired coarse columnar grain structure with a high aspect ratio is formed in the current nonequilibrium solidification process, and a consistent microstructure is predicted using solidification conditions with a high cooling rate and high thermal gradient similar to the conventional AM process. In contrast, fine equiaxed grains in the experiment and slim columnar grains with a small aspect ratio in the phase-field simulation are obtained for the low oxygen powder condition. This study illustrates the effect of powder oxide from a processing aspect and provides insight into the importance of improving the service life of powder feedstock by effectively reducing the surface oxidation process on the powder surface.

The cleanliness level in the slabs of micro-alloy structure steel produced in the BOF–CAS–CC process was studied by optimizing the compositions of molten steel and refining slag in trial heats. When the slag composition was controlled in the range of CaO = 45–53 wt%, Al2O3 = 28–32 wt%, SiO2 = 6–11 wt% and MgO = 5–10 wt% in CAS, the steel composition should be in the range of [Als] = 0.025–0.035 wt% and a[O] = 0.8–1.5 ppm. After CAS treatment without feeding calcium, the results showed that the removal ratio of total oxygen content increased to 61% and the nitrogen content decreased from 34 to 13 ppm in the improved process. The residual micro-inclusions in slabs mainly consisted of SiO2–Al2O3–TiO2 and sulfides, and the particle size was predominately below 5 μm.

The corrosion behaviors of corundum brick and carbon composite brick used in blast furnace hearth by CaO-SiO2-MgO-Al2O3-Cr2O3(-CaF2) slags were studied in the present work. The degradation of the corundum brick in slag was a result of slag infiltration and brick dissolution, and the corrosion of the brick became more serious with the addition of CaF2 due to the decrease of slag viscosity. The disintegration of carbon composite brick in CaF2-containing slag was caused by the combination of slag penetration, brick dissolution and reaction between slag and brick. By comparing the corrosion behavior in CaF2-containing slag between the corundum brick and carbon composite brick, the corrosion degree of the corundum brick was greater than that of the carbon composite brick. To the blast furnace operation in which a low grade iron ore such as laterite ore and CaF2 containing slag (about 2 wt%) are used, it was found that the carbon composite brick with better slag corrosion resistance can be selected as a hearth refractory so as to improve the operation performance and ensure the longer campaign life of blast furnace.

Abstract Recrystallization of phosphorous deoxidised copper used for strength critical applications at elevated temperatures was investigated by means of in situ heated stage EBSD analysis using a Gatan Murano heated stage mounted within a Carl Zeiss Sigma FEGSEM electron microscope. The influence of applied strain as the result of deformation within a Nakajima test as an analogue for industrial forming on the recrystallization temperature was investigated, the impact of increased heating rates on microstructural evolution was also investigated. Inverse pole figure plots combined with regions of reduction in local misorientations and variations in geometrically necessary dislocations were used to establish the point of recrystallization and the recrystallized fraction of the material. Recrystallization was observed to occur at temperatures as low as 130 °C in highly strained samples compared to around 300 °C within the annealed samples dependent upon heating rate. Increased heating rates were observed to produce a finer final grain structure but had little effect on presence of 60° grain twins, which was influenced more by initial material condition. Graphic Abstract

Strain-hardenable materials achieve their strength due to the build-up of defects and dislocation tangles within the microstructure brought about by strain induced through processing or forming. This strength can be significantly reduced and negatively impacted if the material is used in service at elevated temperatures, which causes the grain structure to recover and recrystallize to a more organized, lower strength state. Forming limit curves of C106 DHP copper and 316L stainless steel were established using an Interlaken hydraulic press with Nakajima punch tooling and GOM digital image correlation cameras. These formed samples were used as an analog to current formed parts, and the effect of extant elevated operating temperatures was then investigated by means of microhardness testing. High-resolution electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis using a JEOL JSM-7800F field-emission gun scanning electron microscope was employed to understand the various mechanisms responsible for the physical and microstructural changes during forming and at elevated temperatures.

In this paper, the effects of slag composition (slag basicity CaO/SiO2 and FeO concentration) on the amounts of H2 gas generated and the magnetic spinel phase precipitated as a result of the reaction between synthetic steelmaking slag and steam at 1873 K (1600 °C) were studied by thermodynamic simulation (using Thermodynamic Package FactSage 7.0) and laboratory experiments. The thermodynamic calculation showed that, upon increasing slag basicity (CaO/SiO2) from 1.0 to 2.5, for the reaction of 100 g of slags with 100 g of H2O gas, the accumulated amount of the produced H2 gas increased from 0.17 to 0.27 g, while the amount of magnetic spinel phase first increased and then decreased, with the maximum precipitation of 16.71 g at the basicity of 1.5. When the FeO concentration increased from 15 to 30 pct for the slag with basicity of 2.0, the accumulated amount of the produced H2 gas increased from 0.17 to 0.28 g, and the amount of magnetic spinel phase increased from 5.88 to 10.59 g. The laboratory experiments were conducted in confocal laser scanning microscope to verify the reaction between 0.2 g of slag and 3.75 L of H2O-Ar gas $$ \left( {P_{{{\text{H}}_{2} {\text{O}}}} \, = 0.2\,{\text{atm}}} \right) $$ . The results indicated that, for 100 g of slags, upon increasing slag basicity (CaO/SiO2) from 1.0 to 2.5, both the produced H2 gas and magnetic spinel phase first increased and then decreased, with the maximum amounts being 0.09 g of gas and 37.00 g of magnetic spinel phase at the slag basicity of 1.50. For the FeO concentration increasing from 15 to 30 pct, the amounts of both the produced H2 gas and magnetic spinel phase increased from 0.04 to 0.10 g and from 18.00 to 27.00 g, respectively. The reaction rate between the molten CaO-SiO2-FeO-MnO-Al2O3-MgO slag and the moisture $$ \left( {P_{{{\text{H}}_{2} {\text{O}}}} \, = 0.2\,{\text{atm}}} \right) $$ increased with the increasing FeO activity in the slag. The dependence of the reaction rate (mol/cm2/s) on FeO content can be expressed as $$ r \, = (7.67\left( {a_{\text{FeO}} } \right) - 2.99) \times 10^{ - 7} $$ .

Plain strain deformation was performed on solid steel samples at 1473 K and semi‐solid samples at 1743 K. The deformation of inclusions under the reductions of 10%, 20%, and 30% was studied. In the solid steel deformed at 1473 K, the average aspect ratio of inclusions increased from 1.23 in the original slab to 2.07, 2.23, and 2.30 under the reduction of 10%, 20%, and 30%. The deformation of inclusions in the semi‐solid steel was hardly influenced by the reduction. The deformation of inclusions was much more in the solid steel than that in the semi‐solid steel in the current study. Inclusion deformation was explained by the difference of hardness between the inclusion phase and the steel matrix. Stress‐strain curves during deformations indicated that the semi‐solid steel matrix at 1743 K was much softer than the solid steel matrix at 1473 K. Compared to the composition of inclusions in the original slab, the CaS content of inclusions in steel samples deformed at 1473 K was higher, while it was lower in the samples deformed at 1743 K. The CaO content changed inversely. Inclusions in steel samples deformed at 1473 K were a little harder than those in steel samples deformed at 1743 K due to the thicker CaS shell formed in the outer layer. The composition transformation of inclusions was mainly caused by the change of the thermodynamic equilibrium between the steel matrix and inclusions at various temperatures. In the solid steel at 1473 K, the strain concentrated on the soft calcium aluminate phase, resulting in a higher deformation amount of inclusions. In the semi‐solid steel at 1743 K, the soft steel matrix deformed more than inclusions, leading in turn to a smaller deformation of inclusions.\ud \ud