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Good aerobic fitness associates positively with cognitive performance and brain health and conversely, low aerobic fitness predisposes to neurodegenerative diseases. To study how genotype together with exercise, started at older age, affects brain and behavior, we utilized rats that differ in inherited aerobic fitness. Rats bred for Low Capacity for Running (LCR) are shown to display less synaptic plasticity and more inflammation in the hippocampus and perform worse than rats bred for a High Capacity for Running (HCR) in tasks requiring flexible cognition. Here we used middle-aged (∼ 16 months) HCR and LCR rats to study how genotype and sex associate with anxiety and neural information filtering, termed sensory gating. Further, we assessed how inherited aerobic capacity associates with hippocampus-dependent learning, measured with contextual fear conditioning task. In females, we also investigated the effects of voluntary wheel running (5 weeks) on these characteristics. Our results indicate that independent of sex or voluntary running, HCR rats were more anxious in open-field tasks, exhibited lower sensory gating and learned more efficiently in contextual fear conditioning task than LCR rats. Voluntary running did not markedly affect innate behavior but slightly decreased the differences between female LCR and HCR rats in fear learning. In conclusion, inherited fitness seems to determine cognitive and behavioral traits independent of sex. Although the traits proved to be rather resistant to change at adult age, learning was slightly improved following exercise in LCR females, prone to obesity and poor fitness. peerReviewed

The number of dogs and, with it, dog sports are growing in popularity, and the training of dogs begins at an early age. Although fitness testing is an imperative part of purposeful training and sports, to our knowledge, no objective field tests are available for measuring young dogs’ endurance fitness. The aim of this study is to describe a simple, easy-to-repeat, and inexpensive way to test training intervention effects on endurance fitness in young Labrador Retrievers. Healthy client-owned 16-week-old Labrador Retrievers will be recruited and divided into test and control groups. The test group will have an eight-week training program followed by a four-week detraining period, while the control group will live a normal puppy life. All dogs will be tested for endurance fitness four times at four-week intervals: at baseline, one month later, two months later at the end of the training period, and one month after ending the training program. Each of the four testing sessions will be identical and will consist of four measurements of heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (BL): at baseline, after trotting 1000 m, after sprinting 200 m, and at recovery 5–8 min after the sprint. The training-induced changes in endurance fitness are evaluated by changes in HR and heart rate recovery times (HRR), BL, and running times. peerReviewed

Background To investigate whether physical performance is independently of physical activity (PA) associated with positive and negative dimensions of mental well-being in middle-aged women. Methods Data were drawn from the Estrogenic Regulation of Muscle Apoptosis (ERMA) study in which women 47 to 55 years were randomly selected from the Finnish National Registry. They (n = 909) participated in measurements of physical performance (handgrip force, knee extension force, vertical jumping height, maximal walking speed, and six-minute walking distance). Both mental well-being (the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form and the Satisfaction with Life Scale) and PA were self-reported. Associations between variables were analysed using multivariate linear regression modelling adjusted for body height, fat mass %, menopausal status and symptoms, marital status, parity, employment status, self-reported mental disorders, and use of psycholeptics and psychoanaleptics. PA was then entered into a separate model to explore its role in the associations. Results In the adjusted models, significant positive associations of six-minute walking distance with positive affectivity (B = 0.12, p = 0.002) and life satisfaction (B = 0.15, p = 0.033) were observed. No significant associations were observed between physical performance and depressive symptoms or negative affectivity. PA was positively associated with positive affectivity and life satisfaction and negatively with depressive symptoms across all the physical performance variables. Conclusions Of the physical performance dimensions, aerobic component was associated with positive mental well-being independently of PA level. In relation to other physical performance components, the results point to the benefits of physical activity for mental well-being.

Publisher Copyright: Copyright © 2022 Hanhimäki, Watts, Koskela, Koteja, Mappes and Hämäläinen. Gut microbiota is expected to coevolve with the host's physiology and may play a role in adjusting the host's energy metabolism to suit the host's environment. To evaluate the effects of both evolved host metabolism and the environmental context in shaping the gut microbiota, we used a unique combination of (1) experimental evolution to create selection lines for a fast metabolism and (2) a laboratory-to-field translocation study. Mature bank voles Myodes glareolus from lines selected for high aerobic capacity (A lines) and from unselected control (C lines) were released into large (0.2 ha) outdoor enclosures for longitudinal monitoring. To examine whether the natural environment elicited a similar or more pronounced impact on the gut microbiota of the next generation, we also sampled the field-reared offspring. The gut microbiota were characterized using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing of fecal samples. The artificial selection for fast metabolism had minimal impact on the gut microbiota in laboratory conditions but in field conditions, there were differences between the selection lines (A lines vs. C lines) in the diversity, community, and resilience of the gut microbiota. Notably, the selection lines differed in the less abundant bacteria throughout the experiment. The lab-to-field transition resulted in an increase in alpha diversity and an altered community composition in the gut microbiota, characterized by a significant increase in the relative abundance of Actinobacteria and a decrease of Patescibacteria. Also, the selection lines showed different temporal patterns in changes in microbiota composition, as the average gut microbiota alpha diversity of the C lines, but not A lines, was temporarily reduced during the initial transition to the field. In surviving young voles, the alpha diversity of gut microbiota was significantly higher in A-line than C-line voles. These results indicate that the association of host metabolism and gut microbiota is context-specific, likely mediated by behavioral or physiological modifications in response to the environment.

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Children and adolescents' engagement in physical activity has decreased in most Western countries across the previous three decades. Therefore, increasing number of researchers are investigating antecedents of physical activity engagement in childhood and adolescence. This longitudinal study investigated if cardiorespiratory fitness measured at Grade 5 explained objectively measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) at grade 7. nonPeerReviewed

BACKGROUND: Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) has been inversely associated with insulin resistance and clustering of cardiometabolic risk factors among overweight and obese individuals. However, most previous studies have scaled CRF by body mass (BM) possibly inflating the association between CRF and cardiometabolic health. We investigated the associations of peak oxygen uptake (V̇ O2peak) and peak power output (Wpeak) scaled either by BM-1, fat free mass (FFM-1), or by allometric methods with individual cardiometabolic risk factors and clustering of cardiometabolic risk factors in 55 overweight or obese adults with metabolic syndrome. METHODS: V̇ O2peak and Wpeak were assessed by a maximal cycle ergometer exercise test. FFM was measured by air displacement plethysmograph and glucose, insulin, HbA1c, triglycerides, and total, LDL, and HDL cholesterol from fasting blood samples. HOMA-IR and metabolic syndrome score (MetS) were computed. RESULTS: V̇ O2peak and Wpeak scaled by BM-1 were inversely associated with insulin (β=-0.404 to -0.372, 95% CI=-0.704 to -0.048), HOMA-IR (β=-0.442 to -0.440, 95% CI=-0.762 to -0.117), and MetS (β=-0.474 to -0.463, 95% CI’s=-0.798 to -0.127). Other measures of CRF were not associated with cardiometabolic risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that using BM-1 as a scaling factor confounds the associations between CRF and cardiometabolic risk in overweight/obese adults with the metabolic syndrome. peerReviewed

Physically demanding essential military tasks include load carriage, manual material handling and casualty evacuation. This narrative review characterizes the main physical attributes related to performance of these occupational tasks and reviews physical training intervention studies in military settings to improve performance in these military tasks. Load carriage performance requires both aerobic and neuromuscular fitness with greater emphasis on maximal strength and absolute maximal oxygen uptake, especially when carrying heavier loads. In manual material handling, maximal strength and power are strongly associated with discrete lifting, while muscular strength, muscular endurance and aerobic fitness are also associated with repetitive lifting performance. Maximal strength including grip strength, muscular endurance, absolute maximal oxygen uptake and anaerobic capacity are associated with casualty evacuation performance. The results of the present review particularly emphasize the role of muscular fitness in successful performance of the reviewed military occupational tasks. Training intervention studies indicate that load carriage performance can be effectively improved by combining strength, aerobic and specific load carriage training. Improvement in maximal lifting capacity can be achieved by strength training or combined strength and aerobic training, while strength and aerobic training alone, or their combination are effective in improving repetitive lifting, and carry tasks. Only a few studies are available for casualty evacuation and the results are inconclusive but may indicate benefits of strength or combined training. Moreover, emphasis on lower volume but higher intensity in combined training may be a feasible and effective mode to improve military occupational performance in recruits and active-duty soldiers. peerReviewed

The aim of this study was to investigate whether periodising carbohydrate intake around specific training sessions will enhance endurance training adaptations. Seventeen healthy recreationally endurance-trained males (n = 5) and females (n = 12) (27.5 ± 5.4 years) participated in a four-week training intervention. Participants were divided into two groups: FASTED (stayed fasted between evening high-intensity interval training session and low-intensity training session in the following morning) and FED (no restriction in food intake). Pre- and post-testing included peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), anaerobic capacity, and 60 min submaximal running tests. Fasted venous blood samples were drawn for the determination of triglyceride and glucose concentrations. VO2peak increased in both FASTED (4.4 ± 3.0%, p=0.001) and FED (4.6 ± 4.2%, p=0.017), whereas maximal running velocity increased only in the FASTED (3.5 ± 2.7%, p=0.002). Lactate concentrations in the anaerobic test after intervention were greater in FASTED than FED (p=0.025-0.041). Running time in the anaerobic test was improved in FASTED (from 64.1 ± 15.6 to 86.3 ± 23.2 s, p

Purpose: To examine the influence of menstrual cycle (MC) and hormonal contraceptive (HC) cycle phases on physiological variables monitored during incremental treadmill testing in physically active women (eumenorrheic, EUM = 16 and monophasic HC-users, CHC = 12). Methods: Four running tests to exhaustion were performed at bleeding, mid follicular (mid FOL)/active 1, ovulation/active 2, and mid luteal (mid LUT)/inactive. HC and MC phases were confirmed from serum hormones. Heart rate (HR), blood lactate (Bla), and VO˙ 2 were monitored, while aerobic (AerT) and anaerobic (AnaT) thresholds were determined. VO˙ 2peak, maximal running speed (RUNpeak), and total running time (RUNtotal) were recorded. Results: No significant changes were observed in VO˙ 2 or Bla at AerT or AnaT across phases in either group. At maximal effort, absolute and relative VO˙ 2peak, RUNpeak, and RUNtotal remained stable across phases in both groups. No significant fluctuations in HRmax were observed across phases, but HR at both AerT and AnaT tended to be lower in EUM than in CHC across phases. Conclusion: Hormonal fluctuations over the MC and HC do not systematically influence physiological variables monitored during incremental treadmill testing. Between group differences in HR at AerT and AnaT underline why HR-based training should be prescribed individually, while recording of MC or HC use when testing should be encouraged as phase may explain minor, but possibly meaningful, changes in, e.g., Bla concentrations or differences in HR response.

Aerobic capacity is a strong predictor of longevity. With aging, aerobic capacity decreases concomitantly with changes in whole body metabolism leading to increased disease risk. To address the role of aerobic capacity, aging and their interaction on metabolism, we utilized rat models of low and high intrinsic aerobic capacity (LCRs/HCRs) and assessed the metabolomics of serum, muscle, and white adipose tissue (WAT). We compared LCRs and HCRs at two time points: Young rats were sacrificed at 9 months, and old rats were sacrificed at 21 months. Targeted and semi-quantitative metabolomics analysis was performed on ultra-pressure Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS) platform. Interaction of aerobic capacity and aging was studied via regression analysis. Our results showed at young age, metabolites linked to amino acid metabolism differed in serum and muscle with aerobic capacity, whereas no difference were observed in WAT. In aged animals, most prominent changes in metabolites occurred in WAT. Aerobic capacity and aging interactively affected seven metabolites linked to energy metabolism. Our results support previous findings that high aerobic capacity is associated with more efficient amino acid metabolism in muscle. While impaired branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) and fatty acid metabolism in the muscle may associate to the high risk of metabolic disorders and shorter lifespan previously observed in LCRs. The interactive effects of aging and aerobic capacity on energy metabolism-related metabolites were largely driven by HCRs, reflecting the importance of inherited aerobic capacity in the aging process. Our results highlight that dysfunctional mitochondrial β-oxidation in WAT may be one key mechanism related to aging.

A low-carbohydrate, high-fat (LCHF) diet has been proposed to enhance the fat utilization of muscle and the aerobic capacity of endurance athletes, thereby improving their exercise performance. However, it remains uncertain how the macronutrient intake shift from carbohydrate to fat affects endurance exercise training and performance. This study performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to explore the effects of a ketogenic low-carbohydrate, high-fat (K-LCHF) diet on aerobic capacity and exercise performance among endurance athletes. Searches were carried out in five electronic databases, and we followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The search included studies using an LCHF diet as an intervention protocol and compared data on factors such as maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) from the graded exercise test. In this case, 10 studies met the criteria and were included in the meta-analysis. We did not find a significant effect of K-LCHF diet interventions on VO2max, time to exhaustion, HRmax or RPE. However, a significant overall effect in the substrate oxidation response to respiratory exchange rate was observed. The meta-analysis showed that K-LCHF diets did not affect aerobic capacity and exercise performance. Therefore, high-quality interventions of a K-LCHF diet are needed to illustrate its effect on various endurance training programs.

BackgroundThis study was designed to investigate the validity of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) estimation through the Firstbeat fitness test (FFT) method when using submaximal rowing and running programs for well-trained athletes.MethodsWell-trained flatwater rowers (n = 45, 19.8 ± 3.0 years, 184 ± 8.7 cm, 76 ± 12.9 kg, and 58.7 ± 6.0 mL⋅kg–1⋅min–1) and paddlers (n = 45, 19.0 ± 2.5 years, 180 ± 7.7 cm, 74 ± 9.4 kg, and 59.9 ± 4.8 mL⋅kg–1⋅min–1) completed the FFT and maximal graded exercise test (GXT) programs of rowing and running, respectively. The estimated VO2max was calculated using the FFT system, and the measured VO2max was obtained from the GXT programs. Differences between the estimated and measured VO2max values were analyzed to assess the accuracy and agreement of the predictions. Equations from the previous study were also used to predict the VO2max in the submaximal programs to compare the accuracy of prediction with the FFT method.ResultsThe FFT method was in good agreement with the measured VO2max in both groups based on the intraclass correlation coefficients (>0.8). Additionally, the FFT method had considerable accuracy in VO2max estimation as the mean absolute percentage error (≤5.0%) and mean absolute error (–1⋅min–1) were fairly low. Furthermore, the FFT method seemed more accurate in the estimation of VO2max than previously reported equations, especially in the rowing test program.ConclusionThis study revealed that the FFT method provides a considerably accurate estimation of VO2max in well-trained athletes.

Aerobic training is included to cardiac rehabilitation programs together with resistance training. The effects of combined aerobic and resistance training performed in a same session with different protocols on peak aerobic capacity (VO2peak) and maximal dynamic strength (1RM: one repetition maximum) are not well known. We compared the effectiveness of two different combined aerobic and resistance training programs for 12 weeks performed three times in a week in stable Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) patients (n=30) who had previously performed aerobic training only. The patients were randomized to High Volume- Low Intensity Group (HLG) or Low Volume-High Intensity Group (LHG). Both groups performed laboratory controlled aerobic exercise first (60min, 80% of lactate threshold) followed by six major muscle group resistance exercises (HLG: 30-35% of 1RM, 3 sets, 12 repetitions) or (LHG: 60-70% of 1RM, 3 sets, 6 repetitions). VO2peak remained at the baseline level for whole study group (23 ± 6 vs. 24 ± 7 ml·kg-1·min-1, p=0.380) and the responses did not differ between the HLG and LHG (p=0.891). Muscle strength increased when analyzed as one group for both upper (Push Up; 24 ± 8 vs. 30 ± 7 kg, p

Repeated sprint training in hypoxia (RSH) represents an innovative method in the process of development and improvement of physical performance among athletes. However, there is less scientific data on this topic. The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate the effect of RSH method on motor abilities and performance among athletes, obtain new information, and expand the already known conclusions. The data search was performed of 4 electronic databases for the years 2000-2021 May as follows: Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and ResearchGate. This search with English language restriction was made by using the following terms, individually/combination: "repeated sprint ability", "hypoxia", "effects", "physical performance", "VO2max" 844 studies were indentified, and 14 studies were selected (11 male studies, 1 female study, 2 both sexes). Results of this systematic review, a total sample size of 347 athletes (40 females and 307 males, aged 15.3 ± 0.5 - 35 ± 7 years), showed that RSH was an effective training method in improving all monitored variables (i.e. RSAmax, VO2max). However, it should be noted that major improvements were observed mainly in repeated sprint ability (RSA) tests, and less in aerobic tests (i.e. Wingate and Yo-Yo). In conclusion, based on current scientific studies, RSH is more effective method to improve the physical performance among athletes compared to repeated sprint training in normoxia (RSN). This study suggested that the RSH has a positive effect on the monitored variables in physical performance tests especially related to RSA. peerReviewed

Summary Study aim: The purpose of this study was to evaluate neuromuscular adaptations in conscripts with different fitness levels (VO2max) during 8 weeks of military basic training (BT). Material and methods: Twenty-four male conscripts (18–21 years) were divided into two groups (Good Fitness [GF] and Low fitness [LF]) based on their VO2max at the beginning of BT. Body mass (BM), fat free mass (FFM) and Fat% were measured after 2, 4, and 7 weeks of training. VO2max, maximal isometric leg press force (MVC), H-reflex (Hmax/Mmax) at rest and V-wave (V/Mmax) during maximal isometric plantarflexion were measured from the soleus muscle at the beginning, after 5, and after 8 weeks of training. Results: FFM decreased significantly in LF after 7 weeks of training (–3.0 ± 1.7%, p < 0.001), which was not observed in GF. Both GF (6.9 ± 4.6%, p < 0.01) and LF (5.7 ± 4.6%, p < 0.01) showed improved VO2max after 5 weeks, with no changes during the last 3 weeks. A main effect of training was observed in decreased leg press MVC (–7.3 ± 9.3%, F = 4.899, p < 0.05), with no between-group differences. V-wave was significantly lower in LF during 5 (–37.9%, p < 0.05) and 8 (–44.9%, p < 0.05) weeks. Conclusion: Poor development of the neuromuscular system during BT suggests that explosive and/or maximal strength training should be added to the BT protocol for all conscripts regardless of fitness level. In addition, individualized training periodization should be considered to optimize the training load.

Both cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and frequency of sauna bathing (FSB) are each strongly and independently associated with sudden cardiac death (SCD) risk. However, the combined effect of CRF and FSB on SCD risk has not been previously investigated. We evaluated the joint impact of CRF and FSB on the risk of SCD in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease prospective cohort study of 2291 men aged 42-61 years at recruitment. Objectively measured CRF and self-reported sauna bathing habits were assessed at baseline. CRF was categorized as low and high (median cutoffs) and FSB as low and high (defined as ≤2 and 3-7 sessions/week respectively). Multivariable adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) with confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for SCD. During a median follow-up of 26.1 years, 226 SCDs occurred. Comparing high vs low CRF, the HR (95% CIs) for SCD in analysis adjusted for several established risk factors was 0.48 (0.34-0.67). Comparing high vs low FSB, the corresponding HR was 0.67 (0.46-0.98). Compared to men with low CRF & low FSB, the multivariate-adjusted HRs of SCD for the following groups: high CRF & high FSB; high CRF & low FSB; and low CRF & high FSB were 0.31 (0.16-0.63), 0.49 (0.34-0.70), and 0.71 (0.45-1.10) respectively. In a general male Caucasian population, the combined effect of high aerobic fitness (as measured by CRF) and frequent sauna baths is associated with a substantially lowered risk of future SCD compared with high CRF or frequent sauna bathing alone.

The benefits of aerobic fitness in relation to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality is well established; however, the associations of long-term change in cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) with incident heart failure (HF) and atrial fibrillation (AF) have not been studied before. The Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study is a prospective cohort comprising men aged 42 to 60 years from the city of Kuopio and its surroundings, with a baseline examination between 1984 and 1989 (V1), a re-examination at 11 years (V2), and up to 15 years of follow-up from V2. CRF, as assessed by VO2max, was measured at both visits using respiratory gas exchange during maximal exercise tolerance test. The difference (ΔVO2max) was estimated as VO2max (V2) − VO2max (V1). Participants with no missing data on both baseline and 11-year exercise test were included (n = 481). The mean ΔVO2max was −5.4 ml/min⋅kg (standard deviation 5.4). During a median follow-up of 14.3 years (interquartile range 13.3 to 15.1), 46 incident HF (9.6%) and 73 incident AF (15.2%) events were recorded. In a multivariate analysis adjusted for baseline age, baseline VO2max, systolic blood pressure, smoking, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, per 1 ml/min⋅kg higher ΔVO2max was log linearly associated with incident HF with a 10% relative risk reduction of HF (hazard ratio 0.90, 95% confidence interval 0.83 to 0.97). No significant relation of ΔVO2max with incident AF was observed. In conclusion, overall long-term improvement in CRF is associated with reduced risk of HF, indicating the importance of maintaining good CRF over time.

This cross-sectional study of young Finnish men examines the associations of aerobic fitness and muscular strength with metabolome measures that are associated with cardiometabolic risks., Key Points Question Are aerobic fitness and maximal muscular strength associated with metabolites that are associated with cardiometabolic disease risk? Findings In this cross-sectional study of 580 young Finnish men, after adjusting for covariates, aerobic fitness accounted for more than an additional 5% of the variation of 25 serum metabolome measures that are associated with a reduction in cardiometabolic risk. There were fewer beneficial associations of maximal muscular strength with the studied metabolic risk factors. Meaning Aerobic fitness was associated with beneficial levels of metabolites associated with reduced vascular and metabolic disease risk., Importance High physical fitness is associated with a reduction in risk of cardiovascular diseases and death, but the underlying mechanisms are insufficiently understood. Objective To determine how aerobic fitness and muscular strength are associated with serum metabolome measures. Design, Setting, and Participants This cross-sectional study included Finnish men receiving military refresher training from May 5, 2015, to November 28, 2015, representing partly overlapping groups of individuals with the lowest vs highest aerobic fitness and the lowest vs highest muscular strength. Data analyses were conducted from January 1, 2018, to May 31, 2019. Main Outcomes and Measures The associations of aerobic fitness (determined with maximum oxygen consumption in milliliters per minute per kilogram, measured with maximal cycle ergometer test) and muscular strength (determined with a maximal strength test for lower extremities in kilograms) with 66 metabolome measures from fasting serum samples (nuclear magnetic resonance–based metabolomics) were analyzed. Results Participants included 580 Finnish men (mean [SD] age, 26.1 [6.5] years). Including overlap between groups, there were 196 men in the lowest aerobic fitness group and 197 men in the highest aerobic fitness group as well as 196 men in the lowest muscular strength group and 197 men in the highest muscular strength group. Of 66 studied metabolome measures, 48 differed between high vs low aerobic fitness groups, including small very low-density lipoprotein (standardized median difference, −0.67; 95% CI, −0.83 to −0.49), large high-density lipoprotein (standardized median difference, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.69-1.15), total triglyceride levels (standardized median difference, −0.52; 95% CI, −0.65 to −0.34), isoleucine (standardized median difference, −0.37; 95% CI, −0.55 to −0.16), leucine (standardized median difference, −0.55; 95% CI, −0.72 to −0.34), phenylalanine (standardized median difference, −0.54; 95% CI, −0.71 to −0.32), glycerol (standardized median difference, −0.64; 95% CI, −0.81 to −0.48), and glycoprotein (standardized median difference, −0.78; 95% CI, −0.95 to −0.62) concentration, a high unsaturation degree of fatty acids (standardized median difference, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.42-0.81), and apolipoprotein B to apolipoprotein A1 ratio (standardized median difference, −0.88; 95% CI, −1.08 to −0.67). Adding aerobic fitness into the regression model after age, education, smoking, use of alcohol, and dietary factors accounted for more than an additional 5% of variation for 25 metabolome measures (R2 range, 5.01%-15.90% by measure). With these 2 criteria, maximal muscular strength was not associated with any metabolome measures. Aerobic fitness was associated with high large high-density lipoprotein particle concentration (R2, 14.97%; 95% CI, 10.65%-20.85%), low apolipoprotein B to apolipoprotein A1 ratio (R2, 14.49%; 95% CI, 10.58%-19.51%), and low glycoprotein concentration (R2, 15.90%; 95% CI, 11.22%-21.51%). Aerobic fitness was also associated with low very low-density lipoprotein, triglyceride, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, glycerol, and glycoprotein concentrations and with a high unsaturation degree of fatty acids. Adjusting for recent physical activity influenced the results minimally. Adjusting for body fat percentage showed that some of the associations were mechanistically associated with body fat percentage. Conclusions and Relevance This study provides data on the association of high aerobic fitness with underlying oxidative lipid metabolism associated with a reduction in cardiometabolic risk. High maximal muscular strength is not similarly associated with these benefits.

Lower physical activity levels in old age are thought to contribute to the age-related decline in peak aerobic and anaerobic power. Master athletes maintain high levels of physical activity with advancing age and endurance or power training may influence the extent to which these physical functions decline with advancing age. To investigate, 37-90-year-old power (n=20, 45% female) and endurance (n=19, 58% female) master athletes were recruited. Maximal aerobic power was assessed when cycling two-legged (VO2 Peak2-leg ) and cycling one-legged (VO2 Peak1-leg ), while peak jumping (anaerobic) power was assessed by a countermovement jump. Men and women had a similar VO2 Peak2-leg (mL·kg-1 ·min-1 , p=0.138) and similar ratio of VO2 Peak1-leg to VO2 Peak2-leg (p=0.959) and similar ratio of peak aerobic to anaerobic power (p=0.261). The VO2 Peak2-leg (mL·kg-1 ·min-1 ) was 17% (p=0.022) and the peak rate of fat oxidation (FATmax) during steady-state cycling was 45% higher in endurance than power athletes (p=0.001). The anaerobic power was 33% higher in power than endurance athletes (p=0.022). The VO2 Peak1-leg :VO2 Peak2-leg ratio did not differ significantly between disciplines, but the aerobic to anaerobic power ratio was 40% higher in endurance than power athletes (p=0.002). Anaerobic power, VO2 Peak2-leg , VO2 Peak1-leg and power at FATmax decreased by around 7-14% per decade in male and female power and endurance athletes. The cross-sectional data from 37-90-year-old master athletes in the present study indicates that peak anaerobic and aerobic power decline by around 7-14% per decade and this does not differ between athletic disciplines or sexes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Purpose: Few large-scale population-based studies have adequately examined the relationships between steroid hormones, health status and physical fitness. The purpose of the study was to describe the relationship of serum basal endogenous steroid hormones (testosterone, TES; empirical free testosterone, EFT; cortisol, COR) and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) to body composition, cardiovascular risk factors, and physical fitness in young healthy men. Methods: Male reservists (25 ± 4 years, N = 846) participated in the study. Basal TES, EFT, COR, and SHBG were measured in morning fasted blood. Stepwise regression analyses were used to examine associations between individual hormones to four separate categories: (1) body composition; (2) cardiovascular risk factors; (3) relative, and (4) absolute physical fitness. Results: Higher TES, EFT, and SHBG were associated with lower waist circumference (TES: β = −0.239, p < 0.001; EFT: β = −0.385, p < 0.001), % body fat (TES: β = −0.163, p = 0.003), and body mass index (SHBG: β = −0.435, p < 0.001). Lower cardiovascular risk factors were associated with higher TES, EFT and SHBG concentrations, especially between SHBG and triglycerides (β = −0.277, p < 0.001) and HDL (β = 0.154, p < 0.001). Greater maximal relative aerobic capacity was concurrent with higher TES, EFT, and SHBG (β = 0.171, 0.113, 0.263, p < 0.001, =0.005

Background Preliminary evidence suggests that peak exercise oxygen pulse – peak oxygen uptake/heart rate-, a variable obtained during maximal cardiopulmonary exercise testing and a surrogate of stroke volume, is a predictor of mortality. We aimed to assess the associations of peak exercise oxygen pulse with sudden cardiac death, fatal coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality. Design A prospective study. Methods Peak exercise oxygen pulse was assessed in a maximal cycling test at baseline in 2227 middle-aged men of the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease cohort study using expired gas variables and electrocardiograms. Relative peak exercise oxygen pulse was obtained by dividing the absolute value by body weight. Results During a median follow-up of 26.1 years 1097 subjects died; there were 220 sudden cardiac deaths, 336 fatal coronary heart diseases and 505 fatal cardiovascular diseases. Relative peak exercise oxygen pulse (mean 19.5 (4.1) mL per beat/kg/102) was approximately linearly associated with each outcome. Comparing extreme quartiles of relative peak exercise oxygen pulse, hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals) for sudden cardiac death, fatal coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease, and all-cause mortality on adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors were 0.55 (0.36–0.83), 0.58 (0.42–0.81), 0.60 (0.46–0.79) and 0.59 (0.49–0.70), respectively ( P Conclusion Relative peak exercise oxygen pulse measured during maximal exercise was linearly and inversely associated with fatal cardiovascular and all-cause mortality events in middle-aged men. In addition, relative peak exercise oxygen pulse provided significant improvement in cardiovascular disease mortality risk assessment beyond conventional risk factors.

Despite advances in treatment of cardiovascular diseases, coronary heart disease (CHD) remains the most common cause of death in the Western countries; and its first manifestation is often sudden cardiac death (SCD). The development of CHD is a lifelong process, the pace of which is governed by the burden of several risk factors. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association of levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), exercise-induced myocardial ischemia and physical activity with the risk of CHD-related death, including SCD events among men with different risk factor profiles. This study is based on the population of the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study, which recruited a sample of 2682 men aged 42–60 years. Their CRF was assessed with a maximal exercise test using respiratory gas analysis. Exercise-induced ST segment depression was defined as a ≥1 mm ST segment depression on the electrocardiogram. Anthropometric measurements, blood sample analyzes and questionnaires regarding leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) and smoking were performed at baseline. Men with both low CRF and exercise-induced ST segment depression were at higher risk of death from CHD and SCD than men with high CRF without ST segment depressions. Men with low CRF and low LTPA were at higher risk of SCD than men with low CRF and high LTPA. The amount of LTPA did not alter the incidence on SCD among men with high CRF. These findings were adjusted for age, type 2 diabetes and CHD, smoking, alcohol consumption, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, serum low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and serum C-reactive protein level. These findings emphasize the importance of physical activity and treatment of other modifiable risk factors, especially among the men with low CRF. Tiivistelmä Sydän- ja verisuonisairauksien ennaltaehkäisystä ja hoidon edistysaskeleista huolimatta sepelvaltimotauti on edelleen kehittyneiden maiden yleisin kuolinsyy, sydänperäisen äkkikuoleman ollessa usein taudin ensimmäinen ilmentymä. Sepelvaltimotaudin syntyminen on pitkäaikainen prosessi, jossa riskitekijät määrittävät suurelta osin taudin etenemisen nopeuden. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää kliinisessä rasituskokeessa todetun aerobisen suorituskyvyn, sydänlihasiskemian sekä fyysisen aktiivisuuden yhteyttä sepelvaltimotautikuolemiin ja sydänperäisiin äkkikuolemiin eri sydän- ja verisuonisairauksien riskitekijäyhdistelmien omaavien miesten keskuudessa. Tämä tutkimus perustuu Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study- aineistoon, johon kuuluu 2682 42–60 vuotiasta miestä. Tutkittavien aerobista suorituskykyä arvioitiin kliinisessä rasituskokeessa mittaamalla hapenkulutus suoraan hengityskaasuista. Sydänlihasiskemian merkkinä pidettiin rasituksen provosoimaa ≥1 mm ST-välin laskua tutkittavien EKG:ssa. Tutkittavilta kartoitettiin alussa antropometriset mittaukset, verikokeet sekä kyselylomakkeilla selvitettiin mm. vapaa-ajan liikunnan määrää ja tupakointia. Miehet, joilla todettiin huono suorituskyky sekä samanaikainen rasituksen aiheuttama sydänlihasiskemia olivat suuremmassa vaarassa menehtyä sepelvaltimotautiin ja sydänperäiseen äkkikuolemaan verrattuna miehiin, joilla todettiin hyvä suorituskyky eikä rasituksen aiheuttamaa sydänlihasiskemiaa. Miehet joilla todettiin huono suorituskyky, mutta harrastivat enemmän liikuntaa vapaa-ajalla, olivat pienemmässä vaarassa sydänperäiseen äkkikuolemaan kuin huonokuntoiset miehet, jotka harrastivat vähemmän liikuntaa vapaa-ajallaan. Vapaa-ajan liikunnan määrä ei muuttanut sydänperäisen äkkikuoleman esiintyvyyttä hyväkuntoisten miesten keskuudessa. Nämä tulokset vakioitiin iän, tyypin 2-diabeteksen, todetun sepelvaltimotaudin, tupakoinnin, alkoholin kulutuksen, painoindeksin, systolisen verenpaineen, seerumin LDL-kolesterolin ja C-reaktiivisen proteiinin suhteen. Nämä löydökset korostavat liikunnan harrastamisen tärkeyttä muiden riskitekijöiden hoidon ohessa, erityisesti lähtötasoltaan huonokuntoisilla miehillä.

This thesis investigated whether dietary acid load has either short-term (4 to 7 days) or prolonged (12 weeks) effects on acid-base status at rest and during submaximal and maximal aerobic exercise; whether the effects of dietary acid load on acid-base status differ between adolescents, young adults and the elderly, and between men and women; and whether the changes in acid-base balance have a further effect on aerobic exercise performance. These questions were addressed in three different study settings in healthy and recreationally active men and women. In studies 1 and 2, which followed a crossover study design, participants were assigned in randomized order to follow a diet with a low or high acid load for 4 or 7 days. Study 3 was a 12-week longitudinal study in which participants were divided into two groups of lower and higher acid intake. Nine 18- to 30-year-old men participated in study 1. In study 2, 93 men and women were recruited from three age groups: 12 to 15 years, 25 to 35 years and 60 to 75 years. Forty-nine men and women aged 20 to 50 years participated in study 3. The main finding was that dietary acid load has acute and prolonged effects on blood and urine acid-base status and may also have effects on exercise performance. In young and elderly women, in particular, blood was more acidic at rest and during submaximal cycling after a 7-day high compared to low acid intake. In young women, maximal cardiorespiratory measures were lower and time to exhaustion shorter after high compared to low acid intake. During exercise, better renal function may be associated with higher bicarbonate ion availability in blood, which can diminish exercise-induced acidosis and delay fatigue. Lower kidney function in the elderly compared to younger participants, and in women compared to men may explain why the diet-induced changes in blood acid-base status were greater in the elderly participants and in women compared to younger participants and men. Moreover, even slightly acidogenic diets combined with regular training may be accompanied with increased acid load to the body and start to impair kidney function. These results emphasize the importance of an adequate intake of fruits and vegetables as a part of a healthy diet and a physically active lifestyle across the lifespan.

Objective: The aim of this study was to examine differences in physical performance (muscle power, muscle strength, aerobic capacity, and walking speed) across menopausal stages and potential of leisure physical activity (PA) to modify the impact of menopause on physical performance. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, women aged 47 to 55 were randomly selected from the Finnish National Registry and categorized as premenopausal (n ¼ 233), perimenopausal (n ¼ 381), or postmenopausal (n ¼ 299) based on serum concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone and bleeding diary. Physical performance was measured by knee extension force, handgrip force, vertical jumping height, maximal walking speed, and 6-minute walking distance. PA level was assessed by self-report and categorized as low, moderate, or high. Multivariate linear regression modeling was used for data analysis. Results: After including fat mass, height, PA, and education in the model, the postmenopausal women showed 12.0 N weaker (P < 0.001) handgrip force and 1.1 cm lower (P < 0.001) vertical jumping height than the premenopausal women. There was no significant interaction between menopausal stage and PA on physical performance. The peri- and postmenopausal women with a high PA, however, showed better performance in the maximal knee extension strength and 6-minute walking test, and showed greater lower body muscle power than those with a low PA. Conclusions: Menopause status is associated with muscle strength and power, whereas the association between menopause status and mobility/walking is clearly weaker. A high leisure PA level provides more capacity to counteract the potential negative influence of menopausal factors on muscle function. peerReviewed

Both cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and frequency of sauna bathing (FSB) are each strongly and independently associated with sudden cardiac death (SCD) risk. However, the combined effect of CRF and FSB on SCD risk has not been previously investigated. We evaluated the joint impact of CRF and FSB on the risk of SCD in the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease prospective cohort study of 2291 men aged 42–61 years at recruitment. Objectively measured CRF and self-reported sauna bathing habits were assessed at baseline. CRF was categorized as low and high (median cutoffs) and FSB as low and high (defined as ≤2 and 3–7 sessions/week respectively). Multivariable adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) with confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for SCD. During a median follow-up of 26.1 years, 226 SCDs occurred. Comparing high vs low CRF, the HR (95% CIs) for SCD in analysis adjusted for several established risk factors was 0.48 (0.34–0.67). Comparing high vs low FSB, the corresponding HR was 0.67 (0.46–0.98). Compared to men with low CRF & low FSB, the multivariate-adjusted HRs of SCD for the following groups: high CRF & high FSB; high CRF & low FSB; and low CRF & high FSB were 0.31 (0.16–0.63), 0.49 (0.34–0.70), and 0.71 (0.45–1.10) respectively. In a general male Caucasian population, the combined effect of high aerobic fitness (as measured by CRF) and frequent sauna baths is associated with a substantially lowered risk of future SCD compared with high CRF or frequent sauna bathing alone. peerReviewed

Host genetic factors affecting the gut microbiome play an important role in obesity, yet limited attention has been paid on the host genetic factors linked to physical fitness in modifying the microbiome. This study determined whether sibling-matched pairs of rats selectively bred for high (HCR) and low (LCR) aerobic capacity differ in their microbiome age-dependently and which taxa associate with differential in metabolism. Several taxa in young adult rats (hereafter young) linked to inherited aerobic capacity, while in older adult (hereafter old) rats most of the differences between the lines associated with body weight. Despite the absence of weight differential between LCR and HCR when young, the LCR microbiome contained more Actinobacteria, Veillonellaceae, Coriobacteriaceae, Phascolarctobacterium, and Ruminococcus; taxa previously linked to obesity. This raises the question whether the microbiome contributes to the later development of obesity in LCR. Age-related differences were detected in almost all taxa in both rat lines. The young HCR measured higher for serum glycerol and free fatty-acids and lower for cholesterol, HDL, LDL, and triglycerides than LCR. The old HCR differed from the old LCR by lower LDL. Several metabolites, including LDL, are associated age and genetic background-dependently with the microbiome, which might explain the metabolic differences between the lines. While old lines did not differ in visceral adipose tissue gene expression, the young HCR expressed more inflammatory genes than LCR, and several taxa including Proteobacteria associated with these genes. In conclusion, intrinsic aerobic capacity governs the microbiome, which may influence body weight, metabolism, and gene expression.

Objectives: Rescuers work in 24-h shifts and the demanding nature of the occupation requires adequate recovery between work shifts. The purpose of this study has been to find out what kind of changes in autonomic control may be seen during work shift and its recovery period in the case of rescuers. An additional interest has been to see if aerobic fitness is associated with recovery from work shifts. Material and Methods: Fourteen male rescuers (aged 34±9 years old) volunteered to participate in the study. Heart rate variability (HRV) was recorded for 96 h to study stress and recovery, from the beginning of a 24-h work shift to the beginning of the next shift. Aerobic fitness assessment included maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) estimation with a submaximal bicycle ergometer test. Salivary cortisol samples were collected 0 min, 15 min, and 30 min after awakening on the 3 resting days. Results: Some HRV parameters showed enhanced autonomic control after the work shift. Stress percentage decreased from the working day to the 2nd rest day (p < 0.05). However, maximal oxygen uptake was not associated with enhanced parasympathetic cardiac control (p > 0.05). Cortisol awakening response was attenuated right after the work shift. Conclusions: The HRV findings show that recovery after a long work shift takes several days. Thus, rescuers should pay attention to sufficient recovery before the next work shift, and an integrated model of perceived and physiological measurements could be beneficial to assess cardiovascular strain among rescuers with long work shifts. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 2017;30(3):433–444

Hengitys- ja verenkiertoelimistön kunnon on todettu olevan yhteydessä useisiin sairauksiin ja eliniänodotteeseen. Etäteknologiaa sisältävillä interventioilla on todettu olevan yhteys fyysiseen aktiivisuuteen ja hengitys- ja verenkiertoelimistön kuntoon, mutta tutkittua vaikuttavuustietoa on vähän. Maksimaalinen hapenottokyky on yleisesti käytetty hengitys- ja verenkiertoelimistön kunnon mittari, ja se kuvaa hengitys- ja verenkiertoelimistön kykyä kuljettaa happea lihaksille. Tämän järjestelmällisen kirjallisuuskatsauksen tavoitteena oli selvittää etäteknologiaa sisältävien liikunnallisten kuntoutusinterventioiden vaikuttavuutta maksimaaliseen hapenottokykyyn. Kirjallisuushaku tehtiin (2000–2016) CENTRAL, EMBASE, Ovid MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO -tietokantoihin. Lisäksi tehtiin täydentävä haku (1996-2016) Ovid MEDLINE -tietokantaan sekä käsihaku. Sisäänottokriteerit (PICO: patient, intervention, comparison, outcome) olivat: P) 18-64-vuotiaat; I) RCT-tutkimukset sisältäen etäteknologiaa hyödyntävää liikunnallista kuntoutusta; C) liikunnallinen kuntoutus ilman etäteknologiaa tai tavanomainen hoito; O) muuttuja, joka ilmaisee mitattua maksimaalista hapenottokykyä. Laadunarviointi tehtiin Furlanin ym. (2015) menetelmää käyttäen. Analyysimenetelmänä käytettiin meta-analyysia Review Manager 5.3 -ohjelmalla. Näytön aste (A-D) määriteltiin Käypä hoito -suositusten mukaan. Katsaukseen valikoitui 8 tutkimusta, joissa oli 848 tutkittavaa. Tutkittavien keski-ikä oli 59,2 (13,4) vuotta. Tutkittavista miehiä oli 68 %. Kuudessa tutkimuksessa tutkittavat olivat sydänpotilaita, yhdessä dialyysipotilaita ja yhdessä perusterveitä nuoria miehiä, joiden fyysinen aktiivisuus oli matala. Koeryhmien interventiot olivat terveydenhuollon ammattilaisten valvomia etäteknologiaa sisältämiä liikuntainterventioita. Kontrolliryhmissä käytettiin ilman etäteknologiaa suoritettavia liikunta interventioita tai annettiin pelkkä tavanomainen hoito. Tutkimuksissa käytetyt etäteknologiat olivat internet, puhelin, askelmittari, sykemittari, puhelinyhteyttä hyödyntävä etävalvontalaite ja vuorovaikutteinen videopeli. Lopputulosmuuttujina olivat maksimaalinen hapenottokyky tai maksimaalinen aerobinen työteho maksimaalisella tai submaksimaalisella testiprotokollalla mitattuna. Etäteknologiaa sisältäneet koeryhmien kuntoutusinterventiot paransivat maksimaalista hapenottokykyä yhtä paljon kuin ilman etäteknologiaa suoritetut liikunnalliset kuntoutusinterventiot (p = 0,57; SMD -0,05; 95 % luottamusväli -0,24; 0,13) tai tavanomainen hoito (p = 0,11; SMD 0,34; 95 % luottamusväli -0,08; 0,76). Tutkimukset saivat Furlanin ym. (2015) menetelmällä keskimäärin 6/13 laatupistettä. Näytönaste oli C. Etäteknologiaa sisältävä liikunnallinen kuntoutus ilmeisesti lisää maksimaalista hapenottokykyä yhtä paljon kuin kuntoutusinterventio ilman etäteknologiaa tai tavanomainen hoito, uudet tutkimukset saattavat muuttaa tätä arviota. Lisää tutkimustietoa etäteknologian käytöstä kuntoutuksessa tulisi saada etenkin kustannusvaikuttavuuden näkökulmasta. Cardiorespitatory fitness is related to many diseases and life expectancy. Interventions using distance technology have proven to correlate to physical activity and cardiorespitatory fitness but the scientific evidence of the efficacy of these interventions is insufficient. Maximal oxygen intake or VO2max is commonly used indicator of cardiorespitatory fitness. Maximal oxygen consumption represents the capacity of cardiorespitatory system to transport oxygen to the muscles. The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the effectiveness of exercise based rehabilitation interventions using distance technology to the maximal oxygen consumption in adults. The literature search was made to the following databases in October 2015, December 2015, January 2016 and September 2016 (studies from 2000 to 2015): Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (CENTRAL), Comprehensive Biomedical Literature Database (EMBASE), National Library of Medicine (Ovid MEDLINE), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) and Behavioral and Social Science Research (PsycINFO). Supplementary search was made in February 2017 to National Library of Medicine (Ovid MEDLINE) database (studies from 1996 to 2016). PICO technique (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome) was used to set the inclusion criteria. P) adults (≥18 years to 64 years); I) Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) studies, that included distance technology in exercise based rehabilitation; C) exercise based traditional or minimal rehabilitation without distance technology; O) variables that represent measured maximal oxygen consumption. The quality of the studies was reviewed using Furlan-approach (2015). The data was analysed using in meta-analysis method using Review Manager 5.3 program. The degree of evidence was evaluated using Käypä hoito recommendations. 8 RCT-studies were included in the review. There were 848 (n=848) study subjects in total of which 68 % were male. Age average of the study subjects was 59,2 (13,4) years. In six of the studies the participants were heart patients, in one dialysis patients and in one healthy young males with low level of physical activity. The interventions of the study groups were exercise interventions using distance technology supervised by health care professionals. The distance technologies used in the studies were internet, telephone, pedometer, heart rate monitor, remote monitoring device and interactive video game. Control groups received exercise interventions without distance technology or traditional care alone. The outcome variables were maximal oxygen consumption or maximal aerobic power using maximal or sub-maximal testing protocol. The interventions in the study groups using distance technology were as effective in improving the maximal oxygen consumption as the interventions executed without distance technology (p = 0,57; SMD -0,05; 95 % confidence interval -0,24; 0,13) or traditional care alone (p = 0,11; SMD 0,34; 95 % confidence interval -0,08; 0,76). The quality of the studies was 6/13 using Furlan (2015) method. The degree of evidence was C. The rehabilitation using distance technology seems to be as effective as rehabilitation without distance technology or traditional care alone in improving maximal oxygen consumption, but novel studies might change this estimation. Further studies are needed to evaluate the usability of distance technologies in rehabilitation in terms of efficiency.

Johdanto. Vesijuoksua voidaan pitää korvaavana sekä vammoja ennaltaehkäisevänä harjoitusmuotona. Vesijuoksuharjoittelu mahdollistaa aerobisen suorituskyvyn ylläpitämisen sekä kehittämisen ilman, että alaraajat kuormittuvat yhtä suuresti kuin maalla juoksussa. Harjoittelussa tulisi kuitenkin ottaa huomioon lajinomaisuuden säilyttäminen ja se vaatii veden vaikutuksen ymmärtämistä vesijuoksussa saavutettuihin metabolisiin vasteisiin. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksen oli vertailla maksimaalisen aerobisen vesi- ja juoksumattotestin metabolisia vasteita toisiinsa ja selvittää aiheuttavatko testit saman suuruista alaraajojen väsymystä. Menetelmät. Tutkimukseen osallistui 21 (8 naista, 13 miestä), 20-40 -vuotiasta kestävyysjuoksijaa/-suunnistajaa. Tutkittavat suorittivat maksimaalisen aerobisen hapenottokykytestin juoksumatolla sekä vesijuosten. Testien välissä oli vähintään 48 tuntia ja enintään kaksi viikkoa ja testit suoritettiin samaan aikaan päivästä. Ennen testejä ja testien jälkeen suoritettiin viisi kevennyshyppyä. Testissä kuormitusta lisättiin nousujohteisesti kolmen minuutin välein nostamalla juoksumatolla nopeutta 1 km/h tai vesijuoksussa metronomin antamaa askeltahtia viisi askelta minuutissa, niin kauan kunnes tutkittava ei enää jaksanut jatkaa. Suorituksen aikana mitattiin sykettä, hapenkulutusta sekä koettua kuormittuneisuutta (RPE) ja kuormien välissä otettiin sormenpääverinäyte laktaatin analysoimista varten. Muuttujien vertailemisen mahdollistamiseksi tutkittavien tuloksien avulla laskettiin uudet kuormat (60 %, 70 %, 80 %, 90 % ja 100 % VO2max) sekä niitä vastaavat syke-, laktaatti- ja RPE -arvot. Riskitasoksi valittiin p0,05). Juoksumattotestin yhteydessä tehdyt kevennyshypyt olivat tilastollisesti merkitsevästi korkeampia kuin vesijuoksutestin yhteydessä tehdyt hypyt (p

Kunto- ja urheilutestauksessa halutaan usein selvittää henkilön aerobinen ja anaerobinen kynnys. Kynnykset voidaan jakaa määrityksessä käytettyjen muuttujien mukaan ventilaatio- ja laktaattikynnyksiin. Kynnykset ilmiönä ovat kiistanalaisia ja haasteellisia. Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin kirjallisuudesta löytyviä aerobisen ja anaerobisen kynnyksen määritysmenetelmiä ja niiden soveltuvuutta suomalaiseen kuntotestausprotokollaan. Tutkimuksessa testattiin 12 kynnysmääritysmenetelmää, joista yksi oli kirjallisuudesta löytynyt, kahdeksan oli löytyneistä jatkokehitettyjä ja kolme uusia menetelmiä. Parhaat menetelmät saivat parempia tuloksia kuin kirjallisuudesta löytyneet tulokset. Determining Aerobic and anaerobic threshold computationally from treadmill test data. In sports and recreational exercise testing it is often desirable to find out one's aerobic and anaerobic threshold. The thresholds can be divided into ventilation and lactate thresholds by variables used in determination. Thresholds as phenomena are controversial and challenging. In this thesis I examined methods found in literature for detecting aerobic and anaerobic thresholds and the method's applicability for the Finnish protocol of exercise testing. In the study I tested 12 threshold methods of which one was found in the literature, eight were further developed and three were new methods. The best methods achieved better results than the results that were found in the literature.

The production of heat, i.e., thermogenesis, is a significant component of the metabolic rate, which in turn affects weight gain and health. Thermogenesis is linked to physical activity (PA) level. However, it is not known whether intrinsic exercise capacity, aging, and long-term voluntary running affect core body temperature. Here we use rat models selectively bred to differ in maximal treadmill endurance running capacity (Low capacity runners, LCR and High capacity Runners, HCR), that as adults are divergent for aerobic exercise capacity, aging, and metabolic disease risk to study the connection between PA and body temperature. Ten high capacity runner (HCR) and ten low capacity runner (LCR) female rats were studied between 9 and 21 months of age. Rectal body temperature of HCR and LCR rats was measured before and after 1-year voluntary running/control intervention to explore the effects of aging and PA. Also, we determined whether injected glucose and spontaneous activity affect the body temperature differently between LCR and HCR rats at 9 vs. 21 months of age. HCRs had on average 1.3◦C higher body temperature than LCRs (p < 0.001). Aging decreased the body temperature level of HCRs to similar levels with LCRs. The opportunity to run voluntarily had a significant impact on the body temperature of HCRs (p < 0.001) allowing them to maintain body temperature at a similar level as when at younger age. Compared to LCRs, HCRs were spontaneously more active, had higher relative gastrocnemius muscle mass and higher UCP2, PGC-1α, cyt c, and OXPHOS levels in the skeletal muscle (p < 0.050). These results suggest that higher PA level together with greater relative muscle mass and higher mitochondrial content/function contribute to the accumulation of heat in the HCRs. Interestingly, neither aging nor voluntary training had a significant impact on core body temperature of LCRs. However, glucose injection resulted in a lowering of the body temperature of LCRs (p < 0.050), but not that of HCRs. In conclusion, rats born with high intrinsic capacity for aerobic exercise and better health have higher body temperature compared to rats born with low exercise capacity and disease risk. Voluntary running allowed HCRs to maintain high body temperature during aging, which suggests that high PA level was crucial in maintaining the high body temperature of HCRs. peerReviewed

Fyysisen aktiivisuuden vaikutukset aivojen toimintaan ja kognitiivisiin kykyihin ovat viime aikoina herättäneet kiinnostusta tutkijoiden keskuudessa. Näitä teemoja tutkii myös Active, Fit and Smart (AFIS) -tutkimushanke, jonka päämääränä on selvittää liikunnan yhteyksiä oppimiseen ja sen edellytyksiin elämän eri vaiheissa. Tämä tutkielma on toteutettu osana AFIS-projektia, ja se lähestyy aihetta aerobisen suorituskyvyn näkökulmasta. Tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää, miten synnynnäinen aerobinen suorituskyky ja ikääntyminen vaikuttavat varhaiseen tiedonkäsittelyyn, joka sijoittuu aivan kognitiivisen tiedonkäsittelyketjun alkuun. Tämä tapahtui vertailemalla kahta synnynnäiseltä aerobiselta kapasiteetiltaan erilaista rottalinjaa (HCR ja LCR) kahdessa eri ikäluokassa (nuoret ja vanhat). Synnynnäisen aerobisen suorituskyvyn ja ikääntymisen vaikutuksia varhaiseen tiedonkäsittelyyn tutkittiin akustista startle-refleksiä ja sen modulaatioita, startlehabituaatiota ja prepulse inhibitiota, mittaavalla koeasetelmalla. Tulostemme mukaan synnynnäinen aerobinen suorituskyky vaikuttaa varhaiseen tiedonkäsittelyyn jo nuorena, jolloin matala aerobinen suorituskyky on yhteydessä tehottomampaan tiedonkäsittelyyn. Kun aerobinen suorituskyky on matala, myös ikääntymisen rappeuttavat vaikutukset varhaiseen tiedonkäsittelyyn ovat suuremmat. Hyvä synnynnäinen aerobinen suorituskyky vaikuttaisi siis edistävän tiedonkäsittelyn tehokkuutta jo hyvin varhaisella tasolla.

Korkeaintensiteettisen kestävyysharjoittelun blokkiohjelmointi on havaittu tehokkaaksi tavaksi parantaa kestävyyssuorituskykyä. Riittävän palautumisen merkitys korostuu kuormittavien harjoitusjaksojen aikana. Sykeohjatun harjoittelun ideana on ohjelmoida harjoittelua yksilöllisesti autonomisen hermoston toimintaan perustuen. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli vertailla sykeohjatun ja ennalta määrätyn blokkiharjoittelun vaikutuksia kestävyyssuorituskykyyn ja hermolihasjärjestelmän toimintaan. Tutkimus sisälsi kolmen viikon kontrollijakson sekä kahdeksan viikon harjoitusjakson. Tutkittavat olivat 19-37 -vuotiaita kestävyysharjoitelleita miehiä, jotka jaettiin kontrollijakson aikana sykeohjattuun (SO, n=13) ja ennalta määrättyyn (EM, n=11) ryhmään. Harjoittelu sisälsi intervalliharjoituksia (4x4min, 90-95 %/HRmax ja 3x10x30s 95 %/Vmax) sekä peruskestävyysharjoituksia. EM-ryhmän harjoittelu koostui HIT-blokeista (4-5 HIT/vko) ja palautusviikoista (1 HIT/vko). SO-ryhmän ohjelmoinnissa samat harjoitteet jaettiin kuuteen pienempään blokkiin. Blokista toiseen siirtyminen tapahtui joka aamu tehdyn pikapalautumistestin perusteella. Blokkien välissä tehtiin ainoastaan matalaintensiteettistä harjoittelua. Tutkimuksen mittaukset sisälsivät 3000 metrin juoksun, hermolihasjärjestelmän testit (maksimijuoksunopeus, kevennyshyppy, jalkaprässi) sekä hapenottokyvyn testin juoksumatolla. Molemmat ryhmät paransivat 3000 metrin juoksutulostaan tilastollisesti merkitsevästi (SO -5.2 ± 2.4 %, p

Obesity and metabolic disorders have become a notable world-wide epidemic. The pathogenesis of metabolic diseases, such as metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes, has begun to negatively affect life expectancy of current generations. Low aerobic capacity has shown to be a strong predictor of mortality both in rodents and humans. Exercise is known to increase an individual’s aerobic capacity; interestingly, recent studies have suggested that genetic background may play a significant role in the physical activity level of an individual. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of genetic background and physical activity on skeletal muscle properties, metabolism and lifespan. The study consisted of three parts: (1) a cross-sectional voluntary running intervention in high-capacity runner (HCR) and low-capacity runner (LCR) rats, (2) a longitudinal voluntary running intervention in HCR and LCR rats, and (3) a long- term follow-up study with physical activity discordant human twins. Our study showed that low intrinsic aerobic capacity is associated with fast muscular fatigue and slow metabolic recovery after maximal muscle contractions. At the whole- body level, low intrinsic aerobic capacity was linked to low body temperature, which may play a role in the onset of gaining extra weight and, thus, developing metabolic disorders. High intrinsic aerobic capacity in turn was associated with elevated SIRT3 protein level in skeletal muscle, which is possibly linked to increased lifespan. Nevertheless, vigorous physical activity commenced at adult age did not reduce mortality or increase lifespan in rodents. High long-term participation in vigorous leisure-time physical activity did predict significantly reduced mortality in dizygotic twins; however, there was no difference in the lifespan of monozygotic twins that are genetically identical. HCRs were more physically active both in control and voluntary running groups when compared to corresponding LCR groups. Also, the persistent discordances in participation of vigorous physical activity were significantly more common in dizygotic twin pairs than in monozygotic pairs stating that genes have an influence on the persistent voluntary participation in vigorous leisure-time physical activity. Our results indicated that genetic predisposition plays a significant role in exercise participation, hence, genetic pleiotropy may partly explain the associations observed previously between high physical activity and mortality.

Cross country skiing is known as an endurance sport and both aerobic and anaerobic systems have a major impact on performance in cross country skiers. Coaches and athletes use periodized training programs to optimize physiological adaptations and increase performance. Knowing how the major aerobic and anaerobic variables change during the course of one ski season will allow better implementation of training programs. This study examined variations in endurance performance, and how that relates to the variation in different aerobic and anaerobic variables. There were 19 subjects in the study, 11 male and 8 female. All subjects were competitive cross country skiers. The study took place over the course of one training/competitive year and was split into four different testing periods. Periods took place in May, July/August, October/November and April. The first test was a long maximal aerobic capacity test that looked at time to exhaustion (TTE), peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), aerobic threshold (VO2AT), anaerobic threshold (VO2ANT), and submaximal economy (V1, V2). The second test was a shorter rollerski treadmill test looking at maximal anaerobic skiing speed (MASS). There was a significant increase in TTE (7.4% ± 7.2), VO2ANT (4.8% ± 8.7), and MASS (7.1% ± 4.1) through the preparation periods 1-3 (p < 0.05). There was a small decrease in V1 (-2.8% ± 4.7) and V2 (-2.8% ± 4.2) submaximal economy between periods 1-3 (p < 0.05). There was also no significant variation in VO2peak or VO2AT during any periods in the study. VO2peak (r = 0.820, p < 0.01), VO2ANT (r = 0.795, p < 0.01), and MASS (r = 0.687, p < 0.01) were significantly correlated with TTE. The major findings of the study showed that there was an increase in endurance performance during the preparation phase of training. Endurance performance was correlated with VO2peak, VO2ANT, and MASS. With the significant variation in VO2ANT and MASS during the year, athletes and coaches should focus on trying to increase the anaerobic threshold and neuromuscular performance using a periodized training program.

Summary Study aim: to develop and estimate the validity of non-exercise methods to predict VO2max among young male conscripts entering military service in order to divide them into the different physical training groups. Material and methods: fifty males (age 19.7 ± 0.3 years) reported their physical activity before military service by IPAQ and SIVAQ questionnaires. Furthermore, Jackson’s non-exercise method was used to estimate VO2max. Body mass and height were measured, body mass index calculated and VO2max measured directly in a maximal treadmill test. Subjects were randomly divided into two groups. The results of the Group 1 (N = 25) were used to develop a regression equation to estimate VO2max. The results of the Group 2 (N = 25) were used to evaluate the validity of the developed non-exercise methods and Jackson’s non-exercise methods to estimate VO2max by Bland and Altman plot. The validity was further evaluated by comparing the results to 12-minute running test performed by 877 male conscripts (age 19.6 ± 0.2 years). Results: the developed models explained 68–74% of the variation in VO2max. Mean difference between directly measured and estimated VO2max was not significant, while Jackson’s method overestimated VO2max (p < 0.001). Both developed models were equally valid to divide conscripts into tertile group of fitness. However, 5% of the conscripts were classified into the highest fitness group based on both methods, but they were actually in the lowest fitness group based on a running test. Conclusion: in practice, these findings suggest that developed methods can be used as a tool to divide conscripts into different fitness groups in the very beginning of their military service.

Juha Parviainen (2015). Kestävyyskunnon kehittymisen yksilöllisyys ja harjoittelun ulkopuolisen fyysisen aktiivisuuden yhteys harjoitusvasteen vaihteluun. Liikuntabiologian laitos, Jyväskylän yliopisto, liikuntafysiologian pro gradu -tutkielma, 55 s. On tunnettua, että monet yksilötekijät, kuten kestävyyskunnon lähtötaso vaikuttavat voimakkaasti standardoidussa kestävyysharjoitteluohjelmassa saavutettavaan kehitykseen. Eräs mielenkiintoinen ja modernein mittausmenetelmin havaittavissa oleva tekijä on harjoittelun ulkopuolinen fyysinen aktiivisuus. Tässä työssä pyrittiin arvioimaan sen ja erityisesti levoksi luettavan matalan intensiteetin aktiivisuuden roolia yksilötason kehityksessä. Tutkimusaineistona käytettiin kolmea kestävyysharjoitteluinterventiota, joissa osallistujina olivat varusmiehet, aktiiviset miehet ja urheilijat. Aineistoissa oli tilastoitu harjoittelun aikaista ja sen ulkopuolista fyysistä aktiivisuutta objektiivisin mittausmenetelmin. Mittausaineistosta etsittiin yksilöiden ominaisuuksia, harjoittelua ja aktiivisuutta kuvaavia piirteitä, joilla on yhteys saavutettuun kehitykseen. Arviointimenelmänä käytettiin lineaarista regressioanalyysiä. Tulokset olivat pääosin odotusten mukaisia. Kestävyyskunnon lähtötasolla oli vahva yhteys saavutettuun kehitykseen, ja matalan lähtötason omaavilla henkilöillä kehonpainoon suhteutetun hapenottokyvyn kehitys johtui enimmäkseen laihtumisesta. Harjoittelun ulkopuolisen fyysisen aktiivisuuden osalta mielenkiintoisin löydös oli harjoitusvuorokauden levon yhteys kestävyyskunnon kehitykseen aktiivisten miesten aineistossa. Havainnot vahvistivat olemassa olevia käsityksiä kehityksen yksilöllisyydestä. Yksilöllisyyden taustatekijöiden ja fyysisen aktiivisuuden roolin tarkentaminen vaatii yksityiskohtaista tutkimuksen asettelua ja tarkkaan harkittua vastemittareiden valintaa. Olennaista on myös pystyä havaitsemaan harjoittelun aiheuttama kokonaismuutos yksilön fyysisessä aktiivisuudessa. Juha Parviainen (2015). Individual differences in response to aerobic training and effects of non-exercise activity. Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Master’s thesis, 55 pp. Several individual factors such as initial fitness level and gender contribute to training effect attained in standardized aerobic exercise program. Lately the non-exercise habitual physical activity has been suggested as an associated factor. This master’s thesis studied the role of non-exercise activity for the individual differences in response to aerobic training. A special focus was put on low intensity activity. The research material consisted of data from three aerobic exercise programs which were performed by military conscripts, physically active males and athletes. On each program the exercise and non-exercise physical activity had been measured by objective methods. Features describing the research participants, their training and physical activity were extracted from data. Finally a linear regression analysis was used to analyze the association of features to the individual response to the exercise program. The results were mainly as expected. The initial level of cardiorespiratory fitness had strong association to the attained development. The main mechanism behind the response for the participants with low level initial fitness was a weight loss. On non-exercise physical activity, the most interesting and novel finding was the association of amount of rest on training day to the individual training response in physically active men. The findings of the study reaffirmed the prevalent assumptions about individuality of the training response in aerobic exercise programs. Elaborating the factors behind the individuality and the role of non-exercise daily physical activity requires precise research frame and very careful selection of measured response variables. Detecting the overall change on the physical activity posed by the training program is essential for the future research on this topic.

Artikkeliväitöskirja. Sisältää yhteenveto-osan ja neljä artikkelia. Article dissertation. Contains an introduction part and four articles.

Marko Heikkinen (2015). Suorituskykyindeksin toistettavuuteen vaikuttavat tekijät. Lii-kuntabiologian laitos, Jyväskylän yliopisto, Pro gradu -tutkielma, 71 s. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli tutkia tavanomaisesta juoksuharjoituksesta lasketta-van suorituskykyindeksin toistettavuutta sekä eri tekijöiden vaikutusta toistettavuuteen. Suorituskykyindeksi perustuu syke-, nopeus- ja maaston korkeustietojen mittaamiseen juoksun aikana. Suorituskykyindeksi on arvio maksimaalisesta teoreettisesta hapenkulu-tuksesta ja säännöllisesti mitattuna se heijastelee harjoittelijan suoritustasoa. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin aineistona erään yrityksen internetpohjaista harjoitustietokantaa, johon palvelun käyttäjät ovat tallentaneet juoksuharjoitteludataa säännöllisesti. Otanta tehtiin tietokannasta siten, että tietyt laitevaatimukset sekä harjoitteluun liittyvät vaati-mukset täyttävät palvelun käyttäjät valittiin mukaan. Juoksuharjoituksia tuli olla tallennet-tuna vähintään 100 kpl. Lisäksi maksimi- ja leposykearvot tuli olla asetettuina palveluun. Harjoitteludatan avulla laskettiin useita fysiologisia näytearvoja, joita käytettiin hyväksi datan suodatuksessa ja optimoinnissa. Aineisto analysoitiin Matlab-ohjelmistolla. Toistettavuuden tunnuslukuna käytettiin yksilökohtaisesti laskettujen suorituskykyindek-sien varianssien ryhmäkeskiarvoa (SIvarKa). SIvarKa oli suuruudeltaan 26,3 ennen olo-suhteiden vakiointia. Olosuhteita vakioitiin suodattamalla pois sykkeeltään, nopeudeltaan, maaston korkeudeltaan tai teholtaan vaihtelevia harjoituksia. Suodatustestien avulla löy-dettiin viisi tehokasta suodatinta, jotka valittiin optimointiin. Jokaiselle viidelle suodatti-melle määritettiin 10 parametriarvoa suodattimen vaikutusalueelta. Yksittäisistä tekijöistä juoksunopeuden varianssilla ja vaihteluvälillä oli suurin vaikutus suorituskykyindeksiin. Seuraavaksi eniten vaikutusta oli maaston korkeuden vaihteluvälillä, jonka jälkeen eniten vaikuttivat harjoituksen teho ja sykkeen varianssi. Suorituskykyindeksin toistettavuuden tunnusluku pieneni suodattimien optimoinnin tuloksena 62%, ja se laski 26,3:sta 10,0:aan. Suorituskykyindeksin perustana oleviin sykkeeseen ja juoksunopeuteen vaikuttavat lukui-sat ulkoiset ja sisäiset tekijät, joista vain osasta saadaan tietoa harjoitustietokannasta. Kun otetaan huomioon harjoitustietokannassa olleiden harjoituksien vakioimattomat olosuhteet verrattuna vakioitujen protokollien kuntotesteihin, voidaan todeta, että suorituskykyindek-si on hyvin toistettava vakioituna tässä tutkimuksessa käytössä olleilla menetelmillä. Marko Heikkinen (2015). The factors affecting the repeatability of performance index. Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Master’s thesis, 71 pp. The purpose of this research was to investigate the repeatability of performance index dur-ing normal running exercise and the factors that have an effect on it. Performance index is based on heart rate, speed and altitude data measured during a run. Performance index is an estimate of theoretical maximal oxygen consumption and when regularly measured it reflects the performance level of the exerciser. An internet-based exercise database of a certain company was used as the material in this study. The users of the database have regularly stored their running exercise. The database sample was selected based on certain requirements set for the wrist computer system and exercise. Minimum of 100 running exercises along with rest heart rate and maximal heart rate values were required to be stored in the service. Several physiological sample values were calculated of the sample. Consequently, they were later used in the data filtering and optimization. The sample was analysed using Matlab software. The group average of the performance index variances calculated inside single exerciser (SIvarKa) was used as an indicator of the repeatability. The indicator was 26,3 before the conditions were standardized. Conditions were standardized by filtering out exercises that had divergent speed, altitude or intensity data. Five powerful filters were discovered and selected to the optimization through filter tests. Moreover, ten parameter values were de-termined for each filter for the optimization. The most powerful single factor affecting the repeatability was performance speed. The next powerful was the fluctuation of altitude followed by the intensity of the exercise and the variance of heart rate. The indicator of the performance index repeatability was decreased by 62% through optimization and it decreased altogether from 26,3 to 10,0. There are numerous inner and outer factors affecting heart rate and performance speed, which are the basis for the performance index calculation. It is possible to derive only part of those factors from the exercise database. When taking into account the non-standard conditions compared with the standardized protocol fitness tests, it can be stated that per-formance index is very repeatable when it is filtered and optimized using the methods pre-sented in this study.

Tutkimuksen tausta ja tarkoitus Nivelrikko on maailman yleisin nivelsairaus. Pääpaino nivelrikon hoidossa on lääkkeettömässä hoidossa. Nivelrikkopotilailla on todettu olevan alhaisempi aerobinen kunto terveisiin verrattuna. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli tutkia vesiharjoittelun vaikutusta aerobiseen kuntoon polven niverikkoa sairastavilla postmenopausaalisilla naisilla. Tutkimusaineisto- ja menetelmät Tutkimusaineisto kerättiin Jyväskylässä vuosina 2012-2013. Tutkimusasetelmana oli randomisoitu kontrolloitu tutkimus. Tutkittavat (N=87) satunnaistettiin joko koe- tai kontrolliryhmään, jossa koeryhmäläiset tekivät 16 viikkoa kolme kertaa viikossa progressiivista vedessä tapahtuvaa vastusharjoittelua ohjatusti, kun kontrolliryhmäläiset jatkoivat normaalia elämää. Aerobista kuntoa tutkittiin 2 km kävelytestillä. Mittaukset suoritettiin ennen ja jälkeen intervention. Tilastolliset analyysit tehtiin IBM SPSS Statistics 20-ohjelmalla kovarianssianalyysilla, Studentin t-testillä sekä Mann-Whitneyn testillä. Ensisijaisina muuttujina olivat kävelyaika (s), kävelyvauhti (km/h), arvioitu VO2max (ml/kg/min) ja kuntoindeksi. Toissijaiset muuttajat olivat paino (kg) ja BMI (kg/m2). Keskeisimmät tulokset Koe- ja kontrolliryhmien alku- ja lopputilanteiden yhdysvaikutusta tutkittaessa saatiin tilastollisesti merkitsevä ero kävelyajan (p=.013), kävelyvauhdin (p=.008), arvioidun maksimaalisen hapenottokyvyn (p=.003), kuntoindeksin (p=.009) sekä painon (p=.002) ja painoindeksin (p=.001) osalta. Lopputilanteessa verrattaessa koe- ja kontrolliryhmää toisiinsa erosivat ne merkitsevästi kävelyajan (p

Tämän Pro gradu -tutkielman tarkoituksena oli selvittää varusmiespalveluksen kahdeksan viikkoa kestävän peruskoulutuskauden harjoittelun vaikutuksia varusmiesten veren rasva-arvoihin. Lisäksi tarkoituksena oli selvittää mielialan muutokset peruskoulutuskauden aikana sekä tutkia veren rasva-arvojen ja mielialan välistä yhteyttä. Lopuksi tutkittiin tupakoinnin vaikutuksia veren rasva-arvoihin ja mielialaan. Kahdeksan viikkoa kestäneeseen tutkimukseen osallistui 52 (ikä 19.5 ± 0.3 v.) vapaaeh-toista varusmiestä Kainuun Prikaatin viestikomppaniasta. Mittaukset ja kyselyt tehtiin peruskoulutuskauden alussa, keskivaiheilla sekä lopussa. Veren seerumista määritettiin kokonais-, LDL- ja HDL-kolesteroli- sekä triglyseridipitoisuudet. Mielialaa tutkittiin lyhennetyllä versiolla POMS (Profile of Mood States) –mielialakyselystä, jonka 26 mie-lialaa kuvaavasta adjektiivista muodostettiin kuusi summamuuttujaa eri mielialoille: uupumus, hämmennys, depressio, ahdistuneisuus, kiukku ja elinvoima. Kehon koostu-muksen mittaukseen käytettiin bioimpedanssimenetelmää. Aerobinen suorituskyky (VO2max) määritettiin maksimaalisella juoksumattotestillä. Tutkimustulosten perusteella veren rasva-arvot eivät muuttuneet tilastollisesti merkitse-västi eikä terveyteen vaikuttavia muutoksia havaittu peruskoulutuskauden alun ja lopun välillä. Mieliala koheni peruskoulutuskauden ensimmäisten viikkojen aikana uupumuksen (p

Tämän Pro gradu -tutkielman tarkoituksena oli selvittää, voidaanko lasten- ja nuorten maksimaalista aerobista kuntoa määrittää ei-maksimaalisen suorituksen perusteella ja pystytäänkö maksimaalisen aerobisen kunnon määrittämiseksi luomaan yleisiä ennusteyhtälöjä vai ovatko ennusteet mahdollisia vain yksilökohtaisilla parametreilla. Tutkimukseen osallistui 84 vapaaehtoista 5-9 luokkalaista tyttöä ja poikaa, joista 64 (ikä 13.1 ± 1.6 v.) suoritti molemmat testit hyväksytysti läpi ja heidän tuloksensa ovat mukana lopputuloksissa. Maksimaalisen aerobisen kunnon (VO2max) määrittämiseksi suoritettiin referenssiksi 12 minuutin Cooperin juoksutesti. Noin viikon kuluttua Cooperin testistä tutkittavat suorittivat lisääntyväkuormitteisen kävely (604 m), hölkkä (1208 m) ja juoksu (604 m) protokollan (submaksimaalinen testi), jonka avulla Cooperin testitulosta pyrittiin jälkikäteen mallintamaan. Testeistä mitatut muuttujat olivat syke, juoksunopeus ja juoksuaika. Sykettä ja nopeutta mitattiin jatkuvana. Tutkittavilta mitattiin muutama päivä ennen Cooperin testiä myös pituus ja paino. Pituutta ja painoa käytettiin hyväksi tulosten analysoinnissa. Tutkimuksen päätulokset ovat 1) yksilökohtaisia ennustemalleja voidaan luoda, joilla päästään samankaltaisiin tarkkuuksiin kuin yleisillä malleilla, 2) maksimaalista aerobista kuntoa voidaan määrittää ei maksimaalisilla menetelmillä ja 3) yleisiä tilastollisia ennustemalleja, jotka sopivat kaikille on mahdollista määrittää mutta ne voivat olla aineistoriippuvaisia. Yksilöllisiä ennustemalleja luotiin kaksi. Exponentiaalinen malli ja lineaarinen malli. Exponentiaalisen mallin R2 (selitysaste) Cooperin tuloksesta oli 87% ja lineaarisen mallin R2 oli 63%. Tilastollisia malleja luotiin kaksi. Regressiomallissa I R2 oli parhaimmillaan 86% ja regressiomallissa II 87%. Vastaavat korrelaatiot ennusteen ja Cooperin tuloksen välillä olivat 0.93*** (exponentiaalinen malli), 0.80*** (lineaarinen malli), 0.92*** (regressiomalli I) ja 0.92*** (regressiomalli II) (***p=0.000). Vertailtaessa eri ennustemalleilla määritetyn Cooperin tuloksen ja juostun Cooperin tuloksen välisellä virheellä ei havaittu tilastollisesti systemaattista ali- tai yliarviointia, huono- tai hyväkuntoisten tutkittavien välillä. Ei-maksimaalisten kuntotestien edut verrattuna maksimaalisiin testeihin ovat: motivaation merkitys vähenee, vauhdinjaon merkitys vähenee ja huonokuntoisten on helpompi suorittaa ei-maksimaalinen kuntotesti. Koska ennustetarkkuus on kohtuullien hyvä, tulisi ei-maksimaalisten kuntotestien käyttöä lisätä ryhmillä, jossa henkilöiden kuntotasot ovat etukäteen arvioiden hyvin erisuuruisia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate can childrens maximal aerobic fitness be estimated by using non-maximal (submaximal) methods and also can the maximal aerobic fitness estimation equations be general or are equations valid only with individual parameters. 84 voluntary 5 to 9 grade students, boys and girls, participated in this study. Ouf of 84, 64 (age 13.1 ± 1.6 years) persons completed both tests and their test results could be taken into final results. For maximal aerobic fitness (VO2max) persons had 12 minute Cooper test as a reference value. After about a week all persons had graded exercise test protocol. Walk (604 m), jog (1208 m) and run (604 m) (submaximal test) which results were used afterwards to replicate Cooper test result. Measured values were heart rate, running speed and running time. Heart rate and speed were measured continuously. Couple days before Cooper test all participants had height and weight. Height and weight was used in data analysis. Main results from this study were, 1) individual prediction models can be created, which will give as good results as general prediction models, 2) maksimal aerobic fitness can be defined via non-maximal methods and 3) general statistical prediction models which can be used for everyone are possible to define but they might be true only inside this study. Two individual models were created. Exponential model and linear model. Exponential model R2 for Cooper result was 87% and linear mode R2 was 63%. Two statistical model were also created. Statistical model I R2 was 86% and model II R2 was 87%. Correlation were correspondingly between predictions and Cooper result were 0.93*** (exponential model), 0.80*** (linear model), 0.92*** (statistical model I) ja 0.92*** (statistical model II). (***p=0.000). When compared between different prediction models, estimated Cooper result and actual Cooper result, there were no statistical evidence of under or overestimations when having persons with either low or high aerobic fitness. Submaksimal fitness test benefits compared to maximal tests are: motivation factor is lower, pacing factor is lower and it is easier to execute the test when people have low fitness level. Since the prediction accuracy is also pretty good should the use of non-maximal fitness tests be increased in the groups where estimated fitness levels are very wide spread.