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Aim: To document the impact that rapid increases in HIV infection in hospitalised children at Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital has had on in-hospital mortality.Methods: Hospital discharge summaries from January 1992 to the end of 1996 were reviewed.Results: There were 20 733 admissions in the five year period; 7985 (39%) were tested for HIV. In tested admissions above 15 months of age, 4.9% were HIV infected in 1992, increasing to 35% in 1996. Under 15 months of age, 9% of tested admissions were positive in 1992, increasing to 46% in 1996. The proportion of all hospital deaths occurring in children considered HIV infected (ELISA testing together with clinical features if 15 months or younger) increased from 6.7% in 1992 to 46. 1% in 1996 (p < 0.001). In-hospital mortality for all children increased by 21% from 4.3% in 1992 to 5.2% in 1996. Mortality rates declined in uninfected children from 5.4% in 1992 to 4.5% in 1996 (chi(2) trend 3.3; p = 0.06).Conclusion: The mortality rate of children has increased at Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital as a result of HIV infection. Almost half the deaths were HIV related in 1996. HIV infection is threatening the advances that have been made on child survival in South Africa over the last few decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To explore (i) the impact of unmet social needs on children with cerebral palsy and their families; (ii) enablers-, and (iii) barriers to addressing unmet social needs., Material and Methods: Eligible participants attended or worked at one of the three Paediatric Rehabilitation Departments including: children with a diagnosis of cerebral palsy; parents/carers; and clinicians. One-on-one interviews were conducted with parents/carers and focus groups with clinicians. Interview and focus group transcripts were deductively thematically analysed according to the social model of disability., Results: A total of 44 participants (8 parents and 36 clinicians) took part. No children consented to participate. Analysis of the qualitative data identified four main themes and 14 sub-themes. The main themes were: Unmet social needs are pervasive; An inequitable health system with no roadmap; Everyone suffers as a result of unmet social needs; and It takes a village to raise a child., Conclusion: Unmet social needs have profound impacts on families. The experiences of unmet social needs are intensified by the extra complexities of raising a child with disability. Societal barriers including inequitable systems and the fragmented services are barriers impeding on families receiving support and ultimately limiting their wellbeing.

Introduction: The social determinants of health contribute to poorer health outcomes for children with cerebral palsy (CP) and are barriers to families accessing health services. At an individual level, social determinants of health are experienced as unmet social needs, for example, unsafe housing conditions. There is emerging evidence that clinical pathways for the systematic identification and referral to services for unmet social needs can support families to address these needs. These clinical pathways have not been implemented for children with CP. The objectives are to investigate the feasibility and acceptability of two co-designed social needs clinical pathways for parents/caregivers of children with CP-social prescribing (ie, Community Linker plus resource pack) compared with resource pack only., Methods and Analysis: This pilot randomised controlled trial will run at the three tertiary paediatric rehabilitation services in New South Wales, Australia. A total of 120 participants will be recruited, with randomisation stratified by study site. A survey tool will be used to identify families experiencing unmet social needs. Parents/caregivers who report one or more unmet social need/s and consent will be eligible. The active control group will receive a resource pack containing information on community services to support unmet social needs. The social prescribing intervention group will receive one-on-one Community Linker support, in addition to the resource pack. The survey tool, intervention, logic model, and resource pack were co-designed with patient families and their healthcare workers. Feasibility of the research design and the clinical pathways will be evaluated using the number/proportion of parents/caregivers who complete the survey tool, consent, engage with the intervention, and complete research measures. Acceptability will be evaluated using questionnaires and qualitative interviews., Ethics and Dissemination: Human research ethics approval was granted by the Sydney Children's Hospitals Network Human Research Ethics Committee (2022/ETH01688). Participants and stakeholders will receive updates and findings via regular communication channels including meetings, presentations, and publications., Trial Registration Number: Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: 12622001459718., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: There has been a limited understanding of the longitudinal trajectory and determinants of socio-emotional outcomes among children in out-of-home care (OOHC)., Objectives: This study aimed to examine child socio-demographics, pre-care maltreatment, placement, and caregiver factors associated with trajectories of socio-emotional difficulties of children in OOHC., Participants and Setting: The study sample (n = 345) included data from the Pathways of Care Longitudinal Study (POCLS), a prospective longitudinal cohort of children aged 3-17 years who entered the OOHC system in New South Wales (NSW) Australia, between 2010 and 2011., Methods: Group-based trajectory models were used to identify distinct socio-emotional trajectory groups based on the Child Behaviour Check List (CBCL) Total Problem T-scores completed at all four Waves 1-4. Modified Poisson regression analysis was conducted to assess the association (risk ratios) of socio-emotional trajectory group membership with pre-care maltreatment, placement, and caregiver-related factors., Results: Three trajectories of socio-emotional development were identified: 'persistently low difficulties' (average CBCL T-score changed from 40 to 38 over time), normal (average CBCL T-score changed from 52 to 55 over time), and clinical (average CBCL T-score remained at 68 over time) trajectories. Each trajectory presented a stable trend over time. Relative/kinship care, as compared with foster care, was associated with the "persistently low" socio-emotional trajectory. Being male, exposure to ≥8 pre-care substantiated risk of significant harm (ROSH) reports, placement changes, and caregiver's psychological distress (more than two-fold increased risk) were associated with the clinical socio-emotional trajectory., Conclusions: Early intervention to ensure children have a nurturing care environment and psychological support to caregivers are vital for positive socio-emotional development over time among children in long-term OOHC., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Objectives: To examine the changing health needs of refugee children and young people (CYP) entering Australia, in relation to key government policy changes., Study Design: Retrospective analysis of health service use data over 11 years., Setting: Paediatric refugee clinics in South Western Sydney (SWS), the Australian region with the largest annual resettlement of refugees., Participants: Refugee CYP (≤25 years) attending the SWS paediatric refugee clinics for their first visit between 2009 and 2019., Measures: Clinician defined health conditions categorised as communicable and non-communicable disease (NCD)., Results: Data were analysed for 359 CYP, mean age 9.3 years; 212 male (59.1%). Most CYP (n=331, 92.2%) had health problems identified; 292 (81.3%) had ≥1 NCD and 24 (6.7%) had ≥1 communicable disease. The most frequent individual NCDs were dental disease (n=128, 35.7%) and vitamin D deficiency (n=72, 20.1%). Trend analysis showed increased odds of identifying an NCD from 2013 onwards (crude OR 1.77, 95% CI 1.06 to 2.96). Neurodevelopmental problems, especially Global Developmental Delay (n=31, 8.6%), emerged as more prevalent issues in the latter half of the decade. There were significantly increased odds of identifying a neurodevelopmental problem in 2016-2019, especially in 2016-2017 (adjusted OR 2.93, 95% CI 1.34 to 6.40). Key policy changes during this period included acceptance of refugees with disabilities from 2012, additional Australian Humanitarian Programme intake from the Eastern Mediterranean region and mandatory offshore processing for those seeking asylum by boat from 2013. In response to the changing needs, local health services adopted nurse-led primary healthcare screening, early childhood services, youth and disability clinics., Conclusions: Refugee CYP in Australia are presenting with a growing burden of NCDs, with neurodevelopmental problems contributing. Government policy changes affect the sociodemographics of resettled populations, influencing health profiles. Paediatric refugee health services need to be responsive to the changing needs of these populations to optimise well-being., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Introduction: Social determinants of health (SDH) are contributors to health inequities experienced by some children with cerebral palsy and pose barriers to families engaging with complex and fragmented healthcare systems. There is emerging evidence to support 'social prescribing' interventions that systematically identify SDH concerns and refer patients to non-medical social care support and services to address their needs. To date, social prescribing has not been trialled specifically for children with neurodevelopmental disabilities, including cerebral palsy, in Australia. This study aims to codesign a social prescribing programme to address SDH concerns of children with cerebral palsy and their families who attend one of the three tertiary paediatric rehabilitation services in New South Wales, Australia., Methods and Analysis: This is a qualitative multi-site study conducted at the three NSW paediatric hospitals' rehabilitation departments using a codesign approach. Children aged 12-18 years with cerebral palsy, parents/caregivers of children (aged 0-18 years) with cerebral palsy, and clinicians will be involved in all stages to codesign the social prescribing programme. The study will consist of three components: (1) 'what we need', (2) 'creating the pathways' and (3) 'finalising and sign off'. This project is overseen by two advisory groups: one group of young adults with cerebral palsy and one group of parents of young people with cerebral palsy. The study will be guided by the biopsychosocial ecological framework, and analysis will follow Braun and Clark's thematic approach., Ethics and Dissemination: The study protocol was approved by the human research ethics committee of the Sydney Children's Hospitals Network. This codesign study will inform a future pilot study of feasibility and acceptability, then if indicated, a pilot clinical trial of efficacy. We will collaborate with all project stakeholders to disseminate findings and undertake further research to build sustainable and scalable models of care., Trial Registration Number: ACTRN12622001459718., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: To describe the health and well-being of children and young people (CYP) seeking asylum subjected to Australia's immigration policy of indefinite mandatory detention on Nauru., Design: Cross-sectional analysis of a cohort of CYP seeking asylum., Setting: Australian paediatric clinicians from 10 health services completed detailed health assessments around the time of transfer from Nauru, mostly to Australia., Participants: Sixty-two CYP who were ≤18 years on entry into offshore immigration detention on Nauru between 2013 and 2019. Mean age at health assessment was 9 years., Main Measures: Health outcomes were categorised as physical, mental or neurodevelopmental concerns/conditions. Risk and protective factor data were collected using the adverse childhood experiences and refugee-specific adverse childhood experiences tools., Results: Over half of the CYP (n=32, 52%) were held on Nauru for ≥4 years. The vast majority of CYP had physical health (n=55, 89%) and mental health (n=49, 79%) concerns including self-harm or suicidal ideation/attempt (n=28, 45%). Mental health concerns were more likely in CYP who were school-aged (p=0.001), had been held on Nauru for ≥1 year (p=0.01); originated from the Eastern Mediterranean region (p<0.05); witnessed trauma (p<0.05) or had exposure to ≥4 refugee-specific adverse childhood experiences (p<0.05). Neurodevelopmental concerns were seen in eight children (13%)., Conclusions: This study highlights the almost universal physical and mental health difficulties in a sample of CYP who experienced forced migration and were subjected to Australia's offshore immigration detention policy. Immigration detention in recipient countries, a known adverse childhood experience, may contribute to or exacerbate harmful outcomes in CYP seeking asylum., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

A literature review of overweight and obesity prevention and management programmes for Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children 5-17 years to inform a co-design weight management intervention in an urban Aboriginal community. Systematic searching of PubMed, Science Direct, Lowitja LitSearch and hand-searching of references, government and Aboriginal websites. Programmes were categorised as including nutrition and food literacy, cooking skills, health education and cultural components. Quality was assessed against the CREATE QAT Tool. Eight programmes, including two evaluations and six programme descriptions, were identified. Interventions ranged in duration from 1 day to 10 weeks involving nutrition education, health information, cooking skills, exercise and cultural content. There were no significant reductions in weight outcomes, although there were reported positive health changes to the children including a reduction in waist circumference and an increase in exercise levels. Insights for future research include effective co-design with community and the delivery of flexible content through an Aboriginal-led, multifaceted programme. There is limited evidence for the prevention and management of weight in Aboriginal children with overweight and obesity. Future research efforts should include more time-intensive, multifaceted, community-run programmes that are supported by medical, advocacy and evaluation expertise from health services., (© 2022 Paediatrics and Child Health Division (The Royal Australasian College of Physicians).)

Objectives: Housing is a social determinant of health that impacts the health and well-being of children and families. Screening and referral to address social determinants of health in clinical and social service settings has been proposed to support families with housing problems. This study aims to identify housing screening questions asked of families in healthcare and social services, determine validated screening tools and extract information about recommendations for action after screening for housing issues., Methods: The electronic databases MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Ovid Emcare, Scopus and CINAHL were searched from 2009 to 2021. Inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed literature that included questions about housing being asked of children or young people aged 0-18 years and their families accessing any healthcare or social service. We extracted data on the housing questions asked, source of housing questions, validity and descriptions of actions to address housing issues., Results: Forty-nine peer-reviewed papers met the inclusion criteria. The housing questions in social screening tools vary widely. There are no standard housing-related questions that clinical and social service providers ask families. Fourteen screening tools were validated. An action was embedded as part of social screening activities in 27 of 42 studies. Actions for identified housing problems included provision of a community-based or clinic-based resource guide, and social prescribing included referral to a social worker, care coordinator or care navigation service, community health worker, social service agency, referral to a housing and child welfare demonstration project or provided intensive case management and wraparound services., Conclusion: This review provides a catalogue of housing questions that can be asked of families in the clinical and/or social service setting, and potential subsequent actions., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Multi-site research studies are essential if we are to conduct national research across all Australian jurisdictions. There is widespread agreement among clinicians and researchers that obtaining essential approvals to conduct multi-site research studies in Australia can be complex, bureaucratic and time consuming. Although there is inherent value in the review process, resources and months of valuable research time are often expended long before the study has begun. Using our recent experience for a multi-site, longitudinal paediatric cohort study of children and adolescents who were detained in offshore immigration detention on Nauru, we describe the process of navigating the ethics and governance approval systems. We identify tips for researchers and clinicians conducting multi-site studies, including early consultation with ethics and governance committees, using their recommended templates, anticipating time delays, and commencing time consuming processes as early as permissible. Our recommendations at the systemic level include streamlined and integrated ethics and governance review processes for all Australian jurisdictions, with co-ordinated requests for further information, a standardised approach across all Research Governance Offices, a rapid system for addressing amendments and individualised study support and consultations. Above all, a nationally agreed framework whereby ethics and governance committees across jurisdictions communicate with each other, use the same electronic platform and present a unified process whilst protecting the welfare, rights, dignity and safety of research participants is required. The complexity of the current ethics and governance processes may inadvertently and unintentionally be a barrier to conducting ethical research., (© 2021 Paediatrics and Child Health Division (The Royal Australasian College of Physicians).)

Aim: There is limited information on the health status of urban Australian Aboriginal children and young people attending community-based child health services. Such information is vital to plan appropriate services. The objective of the study is to describe the health status and service use of children and young people presenting to an urban Aboriginal Community Paediatric Service in Sydney, Australia., Methods: Cross-sectional analysis of routinely collected data extracted from electronic medical records and the Australian Immunisation Register for urban Aboriginal children and young people aged 0-18 years who visited the service between January 2013 and December 2017., Results: A total of 273 Aboriginal children and young people had 609 occasions of service. Almost all (97.35%) were fully immunised. Forty-six percent of occasions of service noted >3 diagnoses; 55% of the consultations were for mental health and behavioural disorders. The most frequent diagnoses were speech and language delay, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and school difficulty. Psychosocial concerns were noted in 61.2% of occasions of service, and 19.4% of children had a history of prematurity. Eighty-five percent of consultations had an onward referral to additional services. The most common referrals were for audiology, ear-nose and throat specialists and speech therapy. There were low numbers of referrals to mental health services relative to the high number of mental health diagnoses., Conclusion: It is essential that we address the mental, developmental and psychosocial needs of Aboriginal children and young people who attend urban Community Child Health services. Integrated service models should be developed in partnership with Aboriginal community to do this., (© 2021 Paediatrics and Child Health Division (The Royal Australasian College of Physicians).)

The COVID-19 pandemic and associated system disruptions are impacting all children and young people (CYP) in Australia. For vulnerable groups of CYP, who already experience poorer health and well-being, these impacts are amplified. Challenges include reduced access to usual services, reduced community supports, financial instability, unemployment and other life circumstances that threaten to widen pre-existing inequities. This article aims to present the reasons for vulnerability of CYP during the pandemic, and to focus on actions by health professionals that mitigate additional challenges to their health and well-being. Using a rapid review of the literature and team-based discussions, eight vulnerable groups were identified: CYP with disabilities, mental health conditions and chronic diseases; CYP facing financial hardship; within the child protection system; Aboriginal; migrant and refugee; in residential care; rural; and isolated CYP. Recommendations for action are required at the level of governments, health professionals and researchers and include enhancing access to health and social supports, prioritising vulnerable CYP in resuming health activity and elevating the voice of CYP in designing the response. The pandemic can be conceptualised as an opportunity to create a more equitable society as we document the inequities that have been exacerbated. Vulnerable groups of CYP must be recognised and heard, and targeted actions must focus on improving their health outcomes during the pandemic and beyond., (© 2020 Paediatrics and Child Health Division (The Royal Australasian College of Physicians).)

Background: The aim of this study was to measure young people's health status and explore associations between health status and belonging to one or more socio-culturally marginalised group., Methods: part of the Access 3 project, this cross-sectional survey of young people aged 12-24 years living in New South Wales, Australia, oversampled young people from one or more of the following groups: Aboriginal and or Torres Strait Islander; living in rural and remote areas; homeless; refugee; and/or, sexuality and/or gender diverse. This paper reports on findings pertaining to health status, presence of chronic health conditions, psychological distress, and wellbeing measures., Results: 1416 participants completed the survey; 897 (63.3%) belonged to at least one marginalised group; 574 (40.5%) to one, 281 (19.8%) to two and 42 (3.0%) to three or four groups. Belonging to more marginalised groups was significantly associated with having more chronic health conditions ( p = 0.001), a greater likelihood of high psychological distress ( p = 0.001) and of illness or injury related absence from school or work ( p < 0.05)., Conclusions: increasing marginalisation is associated with decreasing health status. Using an intersectional lens can to be a useful way to understand disadvantage for young people belonging to multiple marginalised groups.

Introduction: Immigration detention has a profound and negative impact on the physical health, mental health, development and social-emotional well-being of children, adolescents and their families. Australian clinicians will report results from detailed health and well-being assessments of asylum seeking children and adolescents who have experienced prolonged immigration detention., Methods and Analysis: This is a national, multicentre study with a longitudinal cohort design that will document health and well-being outcomes of the children and adolescents who have been detained in offshore detention on the remote island of Nauru. Outcome measures will be reported from the time arrival in Australia and repeated over a 5-year follow-up period. Measures include demographics, residency history and refugee status, physical health and well-being outcomes (including mental health, development and social-emotional well-being), clinical service utilisation and psychosocial risk and protective factors for health and well-being (eg, adverse childhood experiences). Longitudinal follow-up will capture outcomes over a 5-year period after arrival in Australia. Analysis will be undertaken to explore baseline risk and protective factors, with regression analyses to assess their impact on health and well-being outcomes. To understand how children's outcomes change over time, multilevel regression analysis will be utilised. Structural equation modelling will be conducted to explore the correlation between baseline factors, mediational factors and outcomes to assess trajectories over time., Ethics and Dissemination: This research project was approved by the Sydney Children's Hospitals Network Human Research Ethics Committee. Subsequent site-specific approvals have been approved in 5 of the 11 governing bodies where the clinical consultations took place. In order to ensure this research is relevant and sensitive to the needs of the cohort, our research team includes an asylum seeker who has spent time in Australian immigration detention. Results will be presented at conferences and published in peer-reviewed Medline-indexed journals., Competing Interests: Competing interests: Nil, (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Children from refugee backgrounds are less likely to access appropriate health and social care than non-refugee children. Our aim was to identify refugee children's health/wellbeing strengths and needs, and the barriers and enablers to accessing services while preparing for primary and secondary school, in a low socio-economic multicultural community in Australia., Method: Ten focus groups were facilitated with Arabic-speaking refugee parents of children aged 2-5 years (n = 11) or in first year secondary school (n = 22); refugee adolescents starting high school (n = 16); and key service providers to refugee families (n = 27). Vignettes about a healthy child and a child with difficulties guided the discussions. Data was thematically analysed and feedback sought from the community via the World Café method., Results: Personal resilience and strong family systems were identified as strengths. Mental health was identified as a complex primary need; and whilst refugees were aware of available services, there were issues in knowing how to access them. Opportunities for play/socialisation were recognised as unmet adolescent needs. Adults spoke of a need to support integration of "old" and "new" cultural values. Parents identified community as facilitating health knowledge transfer for new arrivals; whilst stakeholders saw this as a barrier when systems change. Most parents had not heard of early childhood services, and reported difficulty accessing child healthcare. Preschooler parents identified the family "GP" as the main source of health support; whilst parents of adolescents valued their child's school. Health communication in written (not spoken) English was a significant roadblock. Differences in refugee family and service provider perceptions were also evident., Conclusions: Refugee families face challenges to accessing services, but also have strengths that enable them to optimise their children's wellbeing. Culturally-tailored models of care embedded within GP services and school systems may assist improved healthcare for refugee families.

Background: Aboriginal Australian children have higher rates of mortality at younger ages than non-Aboriginal Australian children. We aimed to (i) calculate the case fatality rate (CFR) for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children admitted to children's hospitals in New South Wales (NSW) and (ii) identify predictors of CFR. Methods: We used a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of data from electronic medical records for in-patient admissions to the Sydney Children's Hospitals Network (SCHN) over five years (2011-2015). Logistic regression analysis was used to identify predictors of mortality and excess deaths in Aboriginal children were calculated. Results: There were 241,823 presentations over the 5-year period. The CFR for Aboriginal children was double that of non-Aboriginal children (0.4% vs. 0.2%, p = 0.002), with Aboriginal children under 2 years and from remote and regional Australia at highest risk of excess mortality. Predictors of death for all children in order of significance were: Circulatory disorders (Odds Ratio (OR) 17.16, p < 0.001), neoplasm/blood/immune disorders (OR 2.77, p < 0.001), emergency admissions (OR 1.94, p < 0.001), aboriginality (OR 1.73, p = 0.005) and longer length of stay (OR 1.012; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Our data show that Aboriginal children are almost twice as likely to die than non-Aboriginal children. In particular, excess deaths in Aboriginal children are most commonly from outer regional and remote areas and children aged under 2 years with perinatal or circulatory conditions.

Background: Patients who discharge against medical advice (DAMA) from hospital carry a significant risk of readmission and have increased rates of morbidity and mortality. We sought to identify the demographic and clinical characteristics of DAMA patients from a tertiary paediatric hospital., Methods: Data were extracted retrospectively from electronic medical records for all inpatient admissions over a 5-year period. Demographic characteristics (age, sex, Aboriginality, socioeconomic status and remoteness of residence) and clinical characteristics (admitting hospital site, level of urgency on admission, diagnosis and previous DAMA) were extracted and logistic regression models were used to identify predictors of DAMA with 95% confidence intervals., Results: There were 246,359 admissions for 124,757 patients, of which 1871 (0.8%) admissions and 1730 patients (1.4%) DAMA. Predictors of DAMA in a given admission were hospital site (OR 4.8, CI 4.2-5.7, p < 0.01), a mental health/behavioural diagnosis (OR 3.3, CI 2.2-4.8, p < 0.01), Aboriginality (OR 1.6, CI 1.3-2.1, p < 0.01), emergency rather than elective admissions (OR 0.7ha, CI 0.6-0.8, p < 0.01), a gastrointestinal diagnosis (OR 1.5, CI 1.1-2.0, p = 0.04) and a history of previous DAMA (OR 2.0, CI 1.2-3.2, p = 0.05)., Conclusions: There are clear predictors of DAMA in this tertiary hospital admission cohort and identification of these provides opportunities for intervention at a practice and policy level in order to prevent adverse outcomes.

Objective The aims of the present study were to describe the prevalence of vulnerability in a cohort of newborns, identify the factors that increase the risk of vulnerability and examine whether those who are most vulnerable are receiving home visits. Methods A prospective cross-sectional study was performed using data collected from questionnaires completed by child and family health nurses and obstetric discharge summaries for each mother-baby dyad. Descriptive frequencies and percentages are used to describe the proportions of children who were vulnerable, offered services and had risk factors for vulnerability. Categorical data were compared using Pearson's Chi-squared analysis. Results In all, 1517 newborns were included in the present study. Of these, 40.5% were identified as vulnerable and 13.9% had two or more risk factors for vulnerability (95% confidence interval (CI) 12-16%). The most common risk factors were biological. Across all newborns, 33.7% were visited at home, and 74.6% of vulnerable newborns were offered a home visit. Children identified as vulnerable were more likely to have a home visit than those who were not (z for 95% CI=1.96; P<0.1). Conclusions Although the high reported prevalence of identified risk needs to be confirmed in further studies, identifying vulnerability allowed the offer of home visiting to be directed towards those most likely to benefit. What is known about the topic? Of the Australian child population, 10-20% are vulnerable to adverse health, developmental and wellbeing outcomes. Vulnerable infants are at a greater risk of becoming vulnerable children, adolescents and adults over the life course. Biological and psychosocial risk factors for vulnerability are well described. Families with the greatest need are often the least likely to access or receive support, and have lower utilisation of preventative health services despite evidence that support in the first few years of life can significantly improve long-term outcomes. What does this paper add? This paper provides a detailed description of vulnerabilities in a cohort of newborns and demonstrates that it is possible to assign risk of vulnerability within existing child and family health services using tools that identify biological and psychosocial risk factors. Identification of vulnerability risk allows prioritisation of services to those with the greatest need. What are the implications for practitioners? It is possible to identify vulnerability risk within child and family health services. This allows those families at risk of future adverse health, developmental and wellbeing outcomes to be prioritised to receive health services and supports.

Objectives: To investigate differences in demographic and clinical characteristics of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children aged 0-4 years hospitalised for unintentional poisoning in New South Wales (NSW), Australia., Design and Setting: Retrospective whole-of-population cohort analysis of linked hospital and mortality data for 2000-2014., Participants: All children (Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal) under the age of 5 years who were born in a hospital in NSW from 2000 to 2009., Outcomes: The primary outcome was hospitalisation for unintentional poisoning. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds of poisoning hospitalisation for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children. Poisoning agents and clinical outcomes were compared by Aboriginality., Results: The cohort included 767 119 children, including 28 528 (3.7%) Aboriginal children. Aboriginal children had approximately three times higher rates of hospitalised poisoning (1.34%) compared with non-Aboriginal children (0.41%). Poisoning incidence peaked at 2-3 years of age. Male sex, socioeconomic disadvantage and geographical remoteness were associated with higher odds of poisoning hospitalisation for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children, but associations with disadvantage and remoteness were statistically significant only for non-Aboriginal children. Most (83%) poisonings were caused by pharmaceutical agents. Few Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children had repeat admissions for poisoning; most had a length of stay of 1 day or less. Only 8% of poisoning admissions involved contact with a social worker., Conclusion: Commonly used medications in the general population contribute to poisonings among both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal preschool-aged children. This study highlights a need to develop culturally safe poisoning prevention strategies and policies., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Aim: To determine the cultural competency training, knowledge and attitudes of health professionals about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (hereafter referred to as Aboriginal) health-care delivery., Methods: Survey of medical (n = 200), nursing (n = 200) and other health professionals (n = 210) working in two tertiary paediatric hospitals in December 2013. The main outcome measures were training in Aboriginal health-care delivery, knowledge of Aboriginal health and services, attitudes to identification of Aboriginal patients and suggested ways to improve health-care delivery to Aboriginal patients., Results: We received responses from 286 of 572 (50.0%) staff with valid emails: 75 medical, 88 nursing and 123 other health professionals. A minority reported receiving specific Aboriginal health training (126/286, 44.8%) and Aboriginal cultural competency training (106/286, 37.1%). Medical staff were less likely than others to report Aboriginal health-care training (P = 0.01), cultural competency training (P < 0.001) and that their training equipped them to manage Aboriginal patients (P = 0.04). Few medical staff reported a good/very good knowledge of the services provided by the Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services (20.0%), the Federal Government Closing the Gap initiative (14.7%) or the Royal Australasian College of Physicians' Reconciliation Action Plan (8.0%). Only 62 of 286 (21.7%) staff agreed that they usually asked patients/parents whether they identified as Aboriginal. Although 256 of 286 (89.5%) agreed that Aboriginal staff were an important resource, only 125 of 286 (43.7%) had referred Aboriginal patients to one., Conclusion: The opportunities we have identified to improve health-care delivery to Aboriginal patients include: increasing Aboriginal cultural competency training, correct identification of Aboriginal patients, referring Aboriginal patients to Aboriginal health-care services and increased awareness of Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services., (© 2018 Paediatrics and Child Health Division (The Royal Australasian College of Physicians).)

Objective The aim of this study is to describe the experience of developing key performance indicators (KPIs) for Sydney Children's Hospital Network (SCHN), the largest paediatric healthcare entity in Australia. Methods Beginning with a published methodology, the process of developing KPIs involved five phases: (1) identification of potential KPIs referencing the organisational strategic plan and pre-existing internal and external documents; (2) consolidation into a pragmatic set; (3) analysis of potential KPIs against selection criteria; (4) mapping these back against the strategic plan and management structure; and (5) presentation to key stakeholders to ensure suitability and traction. Consistent with the strategic plan, a subset of indicators was selected to address quality of care for children from priority populations. Results A pragmatic list of 60 mandated and 50 potential KPIs was created from the 328 new and 397 existing potentially relevant KPIs generated by the executive team. Of these, 20 KPIs were selected as the most important; 65% were process measures. The majority of mandated KPIs were process measures. Of the KPIs selected to highlight inequities, there were proportionately more outcome measures (44% outcome, 27% process). Less than one-third could currently be measured by the organisation and were thus aspirational. Conclusion Developing a KPI suite requires substantial time, effort and organisational courage. A structured approach to performance measurement and improvement is needed to ensure a balanced suite of KPIs that can be expected to drive an organisation to improve child health outcomes. Future directions for SCHN include a systematic approach to implementation beyond the mandated KPIs, including KPIs that reflect equity and improved outcomes for priority populations, development of meaningful measures for the aspirational KPIs, adding structure KPIs and measurement of changes in child health outcomes related to the development of this KPI process. What is known about the topic? Health services are increasingly required to demonstrate accountability through KPIs. There is a body of literature on both theoretical frameworks for measuring performance and a long list of possible measures, however developing a meaningful suite of KPIs remains a significant challenge for individual organisations. What does this paper add? This paper describes lessons learned from the practical, pragmatic application of a published methodology to develop a suite of KPIs for the largest paediatric healthcare entity in Australia. It provides a select list of the highest-level KPIs selected by the organisation to stimulate further discussion among similar organisations in relation to KPI selection and implementation. What are the implications for practitioners? Developing and implementing a suite of meaningful KPIs for a large organisation requires courage, an understanding of health informatics, stakeholder engagement, stamina and pragmatism. The process we describe can be replicated and/or modified as needed, with discussion of key lessons learned to help practitioners plan ahead.