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The hippocampal formation of the mammalian brain is essential in learning and memory processes. Its pyramidal cells are precisely regulated by different types of GABAergic interneurons. Somatostatin (SOM)-containing inhibitory interneurons play crucial roles in neuroplasticity, learning and memory in many brain areas including the hippocampus, and are implicated in several neuropsychiatric diseases and neurodegenerative disorders. The most abundant SOM interneurons in hippocampus CA1 are Oriens-Lacunosum-Moleculare (OLM) cells, which target the distal dendritic segments of pyramidal cells that receive direct cortical inputs. Another type of SOM interneurons in CA1 is the Hippocampo-Septal (HS) cell, which has few local axons and mainly targets basal forebrain areas. These cells show many similarities in their soma-dendritic architecture but display different activity patterns and are thought to have distinct network functions. However, the underlying causes of their different behavior are currently unknown. A complete understanding of the functional roles of these interneurons requires a precise description of their intrinsic computational properties and their synaptic interactions. This analysis can be greatly facilitated by the construction of detailed, data-driven models of single neurons and the local network. Building faithful models of single neurons requires high-quality data on neuronal morphology and electrophysiological properties, whereas the construction of network models depends critically on the numbers, locations, and properties of synapses between the relevant cell types. However, such comprehensive datasets are difficult to obtain and are thus very rare, and practically nonexistent for mouse hippocampal interneurons. Here, our aim was to generate and make available several key datasets that enable a quantitative comparison of various anatomical and physiological properties of OLM and HS cells to facilitate the construction of realistic cellular and network models. The dataset includes detailed scanning electron microscopy-based 3-dimensional reconstructions of OLM and HS cells along with their excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs. Using further light microscopy and patch-clamp recordings, we defined the precise morphological structure, inputs, outputs, and basic physiological properties of these cells. Our results highlight key differences between OLM and HS cells, particularly regarding the density and distribution of their synaptic inputs and mitochondria. For instance, we estimated that an OLM cell receives about 8300, and an HS cell about 14800 synaptic inputs, about 16% of which are GABAergic. To explore the functional consequences of these differences, we constructed morphologically detailed computational models of both types of neurons and examined the propagation of postsynaptic potentials in the dendrites both in isolated neurons and after considering the shunting effect of background synaptic inputs in an in vivo-like state. Our data and models provide insight into the possible basis of the different functionality of OLM and HS cell types and supply essential information for more detailed functional models of these neurons and the hippocampal network.

Kisspeptin neurons in the mediobasal hypothalamus (MBH) are critical targets of ovarian estrogen feedback regulating mammalian fertility. To reveal molecular mechanisms underlying this signaling, we thoroughly characterized the estrogen-regulated transcriptome of kisspeptin cells from ovariectomized transgenic mice substituted with 17β-estradiol or vehicle. MBH kisspeptin neurons were harvested using laser-capture microdissection, pooled, and subjected to RNA sequencing. Estrogen treatment significantly (p.adj. < 0.05) up-regulated 1,190 and down-regulated 1,139 transcripts, including transcription factors, neuropeptides, ribosomal and mitochondrial proteins, ion channels, transporters, receptors, and regulatory RNAs. Reduced expression of the excitatory serotonin receptor-4 transcript (Htr4) diminished kisspeptin neuron responsiveness to serotonergic stimulation. Many estrogen-regulated transcripts have been implicated in puberty/fertility disorders. Patients (n= 337) with congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) showed enrichment of rare variants in putative CHH-candidate genes (e.g.,LRP1B,CACNA1G,FNDC3A). Comprehensive characterization of the estrogen-dependent kisspeptin neuron transcriptome sheds light on the molecular mechanisms of ovary–brain communication and informs genetic research on human fertility disorders.

Kisspeptin (KP) synthesizing neurons of the hypothalamic infundibular region are critically involved in the central regulation of fertility; these cells regulate pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion and mediate sex steroid feedback signals to GnRH neurons. Fine structural analysis of the human KP system is complicated by the use of post mortem tissues. To gain better insight into the neuroanatomy of the somato-dendritic cellular compartment, we introduced the diolistic labeling of immunohistochemically identified KP neurons using a gene gun loaded with the lipophilic dye, DiI. Confocal microscopic studies of primary dendrites in 100-µm-thick tissue sections established that 79.3% of KP cells were bipolar, 14.1% were tripolar, and 6.6% were unipolar. Primary dendrites branched sparsely, contained numerous appendages (9.1 ± 1.1 spines/100 µm dendrite), and received rich innervation from GABAergic, glutamatergic, and KP-containing terminals. KP neuron synaptology was analyzed with immunoelectron microscopy on perfusion-fixed specimens. KP axons established frequent contacts and classical synapses on unlabeled, and on KP-immunoreactive somata, dendrites, and spines. Synapses were asymmetric and the presynaptic structures contained round and regular synaptic vesicles, in addition to dense-core granules. Although immunofluorescent studies failed to detect vesicular glutamate transporter isoforms in KP axons, ultrastructural characteristics of synaptic terminals suggested use of glutamatergic, in addition to peptidergic, neurotransmission. In summary, immunofluorescent and DiI labeling of KP neurons in thick hypothalamic sections and immunoelectron microscopic studies of KP-immunoreactive neurons in brains perfusion-fixed shortly post mortem allowed us to identify previously unexplored fine structural features of KP neurons in the mediobasal hypothalamus of humans.

INTRODUCTION Coping with negative experience is essential for survival. Animals must quickly recognize a harmful situation, produce an adequate response, and learn its context, so that they can predict the reoccurrences of similar experiences. This process requires the lateral habenula (LHb) and the medial ventral tegmental area (mVTA) for evaluating and predicting aversive stimuli. LHb neurons promote encoding of aversive behavior, learn to respond to cues that predict aversive stimuli, and activate negative experience–processing mVTA dopaminergic (DA) neurons. Overexcitation of LHb neurons leads to depression-like symptoms, whereas their inactivation has an antidepressant effect. Coping with negative experience also requires the septohippocampal system to record and recall contextual memories of events. This process necessitates increased firing of pacemaker parvalbumin (PV)–positive neurons in the medial septum and the vertical limbs of the diagonal bands of Broca (MS/VDB) and subsequent theta oscillations in the hippocampus. However, how all these brain centers coordinate their activity during adverse events is poorly understood. RATIONALE Because the LHb does not project directly to the septohippocampal system, the brainstem median raphe region (MRR) has been proposed to coordinate their activity. Although MRR plays an important role in regulating mood, fear, and anxiety, and neuronal projections from it have been extensively studied for decades, it is still unclear how MRR neurons process these negative experiences. Using cell type–specific neuronal tract tracing, monosynaptic rabies tracing, block-face scanning immunoelectron microscopy, and in vivo and in vitro electrophysiological methods, we investigated the neurons of mouse MRR that are responsible for these functions. We used in vivo optogenetics combined with behavioral experiments or electrophysiological recordings to explore the role of MRR neurons responsible for the acquisition of negative experience. RESULTS We discovered that the MRR harbors a vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (vGluT2)–positive cell population that gives rise to the largest ascending output of the MRR. These neurons received extensive inputs from negative sensory experience–related brain centers, whereas their excitatory fibers projected to the LHb, mVTA, and MS/VDB (see figure). MRR vGluT2 neurons mainly innervated MRR- or mVTA-projecting cells in the medial (limbic) LHb, creating a direct feedback in the MRR-LHb-mVTA axis. MRR vGluT2 neurons were selectively activated by aversive but not rewarding stimuli in vivo. Stimulation of MRR vGluT2 neurons induced strong aversion (see figure), agitation, and aggression and suppressed reward-seeking behavior, whereas their chronic activation induced depression-related anhedonia. The latter can at least partly be explained by our three-dimensional electron microscopy data showing highly effective synaptic targeting of LHb neurons and by our in vitro data showing that MRR vGluT2 terminals can trigger depressive behavior–related bursting activity of LHb neurons. MRR vGluT2 neurons seem to be involved in active responses to negative experience, therefore inducing aggression or avoidance, classical fight-or-flight responses. Suppression of MRR vGluT2 neurons precisely at the moment of the aversive stimulus presentation strongly disrupted the expression of both contextual and cued fear memories and prevented fear generalization. MRR vGluT2 neurons could facilitate the learning of negative experience, because their LHb-projecting axons bifurcated and selectively innervated pacemaker MS/VDB PV-positive neurons that projected to the hippocampus. Consequently, in vivo stimulation of MRR vGluT2 neurons instantly evoked memory acquisition–promoting hippocampal theta oscillations in mice. CONCLUSION Our results revealed that the MRR harbors a previously unrecognized brainstem center that serves as a key hub for the acquisition of negative experience. MRR vGluT2 neurons could activate the aversion- and negative prediction–related LHb-mVTA axis and could swiftly transform the state of the septohippocampal system for immediate acquisition of episodic memories of the negative experience. Maladaptations in processing negative experience form the basis of several types of mood disorders, which have a huge social and economic impact on individuals and society. Selective targeting of this neural hub may form the basis of new therapies.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline and amyloid-beta (Aβ) depositions generated by the proteolysis of amyloid precursor protein (APP) in the brain. In APPNL-F mice, APP gene was humanized and contains two familial AD mutations, and APP-unlike other mouse models of AD-is driven by the endogenous mouse APP promoter. Similar to people without apparent cognitive dysfunction but with heavy Aβ plaque load, we found no significant decline in the working memory of adult APPNL-F mice, but these mice showed decline in the expression of normal anxiety. Using immunohistochemistry and 3D block-face scanning electron microscopy, we found no changes in GABAA receptor positivity and size of somatic and dendritic synapses of hippocampal interneurons. We did not find alterations in the level of expression of perineuronal nets around parvalbumin (PV) interneurons or in the density of PV- or somatostatin-positive hippocampal interneurons. However, in contrast to other investigated cell types, PV interneuron axons were occasionally mildly dystrophic around Aβ plaques, and the synapses of PV-positive axon initial segment (AIS)-targeting interneurons were significantly enlarged. Our results suggest that PV interneurons are highly resistant to amyloidosis in APPNL-F mice and amyloid-induced increase in hippocampal pyramidal cell excitability may be compensated by PV-positive AIS-targeting cells. Mechanisms that make PV neurons more resilient could therefore be exploited in the treatment of AD for mitigating Aβ-related inflammatory effects on neurons.

Background All known biological functions of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β) are mediated by type 1 interleukin receptor (IL-1R1). IL-1β–IL-1R1 signaling modulates various neuronal functions including spinal pain processing. Although the role of IL-1β in pain processing is generally accepted, there is a discussion in the literature whether IL-1β exerts its effect on spinal pain processing by activating neuronal or glial IL-1R1. To contribute to this debate, here we investigated the expression and cellular distribution of IL-1R1 in the superficial spinal dorsal horn in control animals and also in inflammatory pain. Methods Experiments were performed on rats and wild type as well as IL-1R1-deficient mice. Inflammatory pain was evoked by unilateral intraplantar injection of complete Freund adjuvant (CFA). The nociceptive responsiveness of control and CFA-treated animals were tested daily for withdrawal responses to mechanical and thermal stimuli before and after CFA injection. Changes in the expression of 48 selected genes/mRNAs and in the quantity of IL-1R1 protein during the first 3 days after CFA injection were measured with the TaqMan low-density array method and Western blot analysis, respectively. The cellular localization of IL-1R1 protein was investigated with single and double staining immunocytochemical methods. Results We found a six times and two times increase in IL-1R1 mRNA and protein levels, respectively, in the dorsal horn of CFA-injected animals 3 days after CFA injection, at the time of the summit of mechanical and thermal allodynia. Studying the cellular distribution of IL-1R1, we found an abundant expression of IL-1R1 on the somatodendritic compartment of neurons and an enrichment of the receptor in the postsynaptic membranes of some excitatory synapses. In contrast to the robust neuronal localization, we observed only a moderate expression of IL-1R1 on astrocytes and a negligible one on microglial cells. CFA injection into the hind paw caused a remarkable increase in the expression of IL-1R1 in neurons, but did not alter the glial expression of the receptor. Conclusion The results suggest that IL-1β exerts its effect on spinal pain processing primarily through neuronal IL-1R1, but it can also interact in some extent with IL-1R1 expressed by astrocytes.

The basal forebrain (BF) receives afferents from brainstem ascending pathways, which has been implicated first by Moruzzi and Magoun (1949) to induce forebrain activation and cortical arousal/waking behavior; however, it is very little known about how brainstem inhibitory inputs affect cholinergic functions. In the current study, glycine, a major inhibitory neurotransmitter of brainstem neurons, and gliotransmitter of local glial cells, was tested for potential interaction with BF cholinergic (BFC) neurons in male mice. In the BF, glycine receptor α subunit-immunoreactive (IR) sites were localized in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-IR neurons. The effect of glycine on BFC neurons was demonstrated by bicuculline-resistant, strychnine-sensitive spontaneous IPSCs (sIPSCs; 0.81 ± 0.25 × 10−1Hz) recorded in whole-cell conditions. Potential neuronal as well as glial sources of glycine were indicated in the extracellular space of cholinergic neurons by glycine transporter type 1 (GLYT1)- and GLYT2-IR processes found in apposition to ChAT-IR cells. Ultrastructural analyses identified synapses of GLYT2-positive axon terminals on ChAT-IR neurons, as well as GLYT1-positive astroglial processes, which were localized in the vicinity of synapses of ChAT-IR neurons. The brainstem raphe magnus was determined to be a major source of glycinergic axons traced retrogradely from the BF. Our results indicate a direct effect of glycine on BFC neurons. Furthermore, the presence of high levels of plasma membrane glycine transporters in the vicinity of cholinergic neurons suggests a tight control of extracellular glycine in the BF.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTBasal forebrain cholinergic (BFC) neurons receive various activating inputs from specific brainstem areas and channel this information to the cortex via multiple projections. So far, very little is known about inhibitory brainstem afferents to the BF. The current study established glycine as a major regulator of BFC neurons by (1) identifying glycinergic neurons in the brainstem projecting to the BF, (2) showing glycine receptor α subunit-immunoreactive (IR) sites in choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-IR neurons, (3) demonstrating glycine transporter type 2 (GLYT2)-positive axon terminals synapsing on ChAT-IR neurons, and (4) localizing GLYT1-positive astroglial processes in the vicinity of synapses of ChAT-IR neurons. The effect of glycine on BFC neurons was demonstrated by bicuculline-resistant, strychnine-sensitive spontaneous IPSCs recorded in whole-cell conditions.

Kisspeptin (KP) neurones in the rostral periventricular area of the third ventricle (RP3V) and arcuate nucleus (Arc) are important elements in the neuronal circuitry regulating gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion. KP and co-synthesised neuropeptides/neurotransmitters act directly on GnRH perikarya and processes. GnRH neurones not only form the final output pathway regulating the reproductive functions of the anterior pituitary gland, but also provide neuronal input to sites within the hypothalamus. The current double-label immunohistochemical studies investigated whether GnRH-immunoreactive (IR) projections to the RP3V and/or Arc establish morphological connections with KP-IR neurones at these sites. To optimise visualisation of KP immunoreactivity in, respectively, the RP3V and Arc, ovariectomised (OVX) oestrogen-treated and OVX oil-treated female mice were studied. Confocal laser microscopic analysis of immunofluorescent specimens revealed GnRH-IR axon varicosities in apposition to approximately 25% of the KP-IR neurones in the RP3V and 50% of the KP-IR neurones in the Arc. At the ultrastructural level, GnRH-IR neurones were seen to establish asymmetric synaptic contacts, which usually reflect excitatory neurotransmission, with KP-IR neurones in both the RP3V and Arc. Together with previous data, these findings indicate reciprocal connectivity between both of the KP cell populations and the GnRH neuronal system. The functional significance of the GnRH-IR input to the two separate KP cell populations requires electrophysiological investigation.

In neurons, the type 3 deiodinase (D3) inactivates thyroid hormone and reduces oxygen consumption, thus creating a state of cell-specific hypothyroidism. Here we show that hypoxia leads to nuclear import of D3 in neurons, without which thyroid hormone signaling and metabolism cannot be reduced. After unilateral hypoxia in the rat brain, D3 protein level is increased predominantly in the nucleus of the neurons in the pyramidal and granular ipsilateral layers, as well as in the hilus of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation. In hippocampal neurons in culture as well as in a human neuroblastoma cell line (SK-N-AS), a 24 h hypoxia period redirects active D3 from the endoplasmic reticulum to the nucleus via the cochaperone Hsp40 pathway. Preventing nuclear D3 import by Hsp40 knockdown resulted an almost doubling in the thyroid hormone-dependent glycolytic rate and quadrupling the transcription of thyroid hormone target gene ENPP2. In contrast, Hsp40 overexpression increased nuclear import of D3 and minimized thyroid hormone effects in cell metabolism. In conclusion, ischemia/hypoxia induces an Hsp40-mediated translocation of D3 to the nucleus, facilitating thyroid hormone inactivation proximal to the thyroid hormone receptors. This adaptation decreases thyroid hormone signaling and may function to reduce ischemia-induced hypoxic brain damage.

Hypothalamic neurosecretory systems are fundamental regulatory circuits influenced by thyroid hormone. Monocarboxylate-transporter-8 (MCT8)-mediated uptake of thyroid hormone followed by type 3 deiodinase (D3)-catalyzed inactivation represent limiting regulatory factors of neuronal T3 availability. In the present study we addressed the localization and subcellular distribution of D3 and MCT8 in neurosecretory neurons and addressed D3 function in their axons. Intense D3-immunoreactivity was observed in axon varicosities in the external zone of the rat median eminence and the neurohaemal zone of the human infundibulum containing axon terminals of hypophysiotropic parvocellular neurons. Immuno-electronmicroscopy localized D3 to dense-core vesicles in hypophysiotropic axon varicosities. N-STORM-superresolution-microscopy detected the active center containing C-terminus of D3 at the outer surface of these organelles. Double-labeling immunofluorescent confocal microscopy revealed that D3 is present in the majority of GnRH, CRH and GHRH axons but only in a minority of TRH axons, while absent from somatostatin-containing neurons. Bimolecular-Fluorescence-Complementation identified D3 homodimers, a prerequisite for D3 activity, in processes of GT1-7 cells. Furthermore, T3-inducible D3 catalytic activity was detected in the rat median eminence. Triple-labeling immunofluorescence and immuno-electronmicroscopy revealed the presence of MCT8 on the surface of the vast majority of all types of hypophysiotropic terminals. The presence of MCT8 was also demonstrated on the axon terminals in the neurohaemal zone of the human infundibulum. The unexpected role of hypophysiotropic axons in fine-tuned regulation of T3 availability in these cells via MCT8-mediated transport and D3-catalyzed inactivation may represent a novel regulatory core mechanism for metabolism, growth, stress and reproduction in rodents and humans.