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We studied the expression of transcriptional factors regulating postnatal morphogenesis of the adrenal zona fasciculata in rats after developmental exposure to endocrine disruptor DDT. It was found that tissue reparation after trophic disorders and cell death triggered by prenatal and postnatal exposure to DDT was accompanied by an increase in the number of Oct4- and Shh-expressing cells forming a pool located outside the regeneration zones and involved in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis in the zona fasciculata. DDT exposure also disrupted the expression of antiproliferative factor Hhex. The data showed that proliferation of fasciculata cells after termination of adrenal cortex growth was downregulated by inhibition of the expression of Oct4 and Shh and suppression of canonical Wnt signaling, i.e. due to a decrease in the reserve cell pool essential for physiological regeneration, which can reduce the reactive potential of the zona fasciculata.

The effects of endocrine disrupters of transcriptional control of morphogenesis are poorly studied. Changes in the expression of transcriptional factor PRH and proliferation of adrenal cortical cells were analyzed in pubertal and postpubertal rats exposed prenatally and postnatally to low doses of endocrine disrupter DDT. In rats exposed to DDT, the expression of PRH and proliferation of adrenal cortical cells differed from those in control rats. Association between these parameters was weakened in the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis and was absent in the zona fasciculata. These findings suggest that exposure to DDT in pre- and postnatal periods impairs the regulation of proliferative processes by transcriptional factor PRH in all zones of rat adrenal cortex, which can be a mechanism of the disruptive action of DDT.

The human adult adrenal cortex is composed of the zona glomerulosa (zG), zona fasciculata (zF), and zona reticularis (zR), which are responsible for production of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens, respectively. The final completion of cortical zonation in humans does not occur until puberty with the establishment of the zR and its production of adrenal androgens; a process called adrenarche. The maintenance of the adrenal cortex involves the centripetal displacement and differentiation of peripheral Sonic hedgehog-positive progenitors cells into zG cells that later transition to zF cells and subsequently zR cells., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The basis for the pattern of adrenal androgen production in the chimpanzee, which resembles that of humans, is poorly defined. We characterized the developmental zonation and expression of elements of the androgen biosynthetic pathway in the chimpanzee adrenal. The newborn adrenal contained a broad fetal zone (FZ) expressing CYP17, SULT2A1, and Cytochrome B5 (CB5) but not HSD3B; the outer cortex expressed HSD3B but not SULT2A1 or CB5. During infancy, the FZ involuted and the HSD3B-expressing outer cortex broadened. By 3years of age, a thin layer of cells that expressed CB5, SULT2A1, and CYP17 adjoined the medulla and likely represented the zona reticularis; the outer cortex consisted of distinct zonae fasiculata and glomerulosa. Thereafter, the zona reticularis broadened as also occurs in the human. The adult chimpanzee adrenal displayed other human-like characteristics: intramedullary clusters of reticularis-like cells and also a cortical cuff of zona fasiculata-like cells adjoining the central vein., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Lineage conversion of differentiated cells in response to hormonal feedback has yet to be described. To investigate this, we studied the adrenal cortex, which is composed of functionally distinct concentric layers that develop postnatally, the outer zona glomerulosa (zG) and the inner zona fasciculata (zF). These layers have separate functions, are continuously renewed in response to physiological demands, and are regulated by discrete hormonal feedback loops. Their cellular origin, lineage relationship, and renewal mechanism, however, remain poorly understood. Cell-fate mapping and gene-deletion studies using zG-specific Cre expression demonstrate that differentiated zG cells undergo lineage conversion into zF cells. In addition, zG maintenance is dependent on the master transcriptional regulator Steroidogenic Factor 1 (SF-1), and zG-specific Sf-1 deletion prevents lineage conversion. These findings demonstrate that adrenocortical zonation and regeneration result from lineage conversion and may provide a paradigm for homeostatic cellular renewal in other tissues., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Compensatory adrenal growth after unilateral adrenalectomy (ULA) leads to adrenocortical hyperplasia. Because zonal growth contributions are not clear, we characterized the phenotype of cortical cells that proliferate using immunofluorescence histochemistry and zone-specific cell counting. Rats underwent ULA, sham adrenalectomy (sham), or no surgery and were killed at 2 or 5 days. Adrenals were weighed and sections immunostained for Ki67 (proliferation), cytochrome P-450 aldosterone synthase (P450aldo, glomerulosa), and cytochrome P-450 11beta-hydroxylase (P45011beta, fasciculata). Unbiased stereology was used to count proliferating glomerulosa and fasciculata cells. Adrenal weight increased after ULA compared with sham and no surgery at both time points, and there was no difference between sham and no surgery. However, either ULA or sham increased Ki67-positive cells in the outer fasciculata at both time points compared with no surgery. Outer fasciculata-restricted proliferation is thus associated with adrenal weight gain in ULA but not sham. Experiment repetition using proliferating cell nuclear antigen and bromodeoxyuridine showed similar results. After ULA, adrenal DNA, RNA, and protein increased at both time points, whereas after sham, only adrenal DNA increased at 2 days. Compensatory growth thus results from hyperplasia and hypertrophy, whereas sham induces only a transient adrenal hyperplasia. Dexamethasone pretreatment prevented the increase in adrenal weight after ULA and blocked Ki67 labeling in the outer fasciculata but not zona glomerulosa in all groups. These results clearly show that the outer fasciculata is the primary adrenal zone responsible for compensatory growth, responding to steroid-suppressible stress signals that alone are ineffective in increasing adrenal mass.

Aim: To determine the secretion of corticosterone (CCS) both in vivo and in vitro during different intervals after orchidectomy in male rats., Methods: Three- and 12-month-old rats had been orchidectomized 0, 3, 6, or 9 months before decapitation., Results: Orchidectomy increased the concentrations of plasma CCS, the basal release of CCS, and the adenosine 3', 5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) production in rat zona fasciculata reticularis (ZFR) cells. The forskolin/3-isobutyl-l-methylxanthine-stimulated releases of CCS and cAMP production by ZFR cells were higher in rats with chronic hypogonadism. The CCS release from ZFR cells of orchidectomized rat was not altered by 8-bromo-cAMP treatment. Orchidectomy enhanced the stimulatory effect of deoxycorticosterone on CCS release in ZFR cells., Conclusion: These results suggest that orchidectomy-related increases of CCS secretion in rats are associated with an increase of adenylate cyclase activity, cAMP generation, and 11-beta-hydroxylase activity in ZFR cells., (Copyright 2004 S. Karger AG, Basel)

CYP2D16 is expressed at high levels in the zona reticularis (ZR) of guinea pig adrenal glands and contributes to adrenal metabolism of xenobiotics. Studies were done to evaluate the effects of age and gender on adrenal CYP2D16 expression and xenobiotic metabolism. In both male and female guinea pigs at 1, 7, 14, or 30 weeks of age, in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry confirmed that CYP2D16 was highly localized to the ZR of the adrenal gland. The steroidogenic P450 isozyme, CYP17, by contrast, was expressed in both the zona fasciculata and ZR. The intensity of CYP2D16 staining was not age- or gender-dependent. However, the proportion of each adrenal gland comprised by ZR and thus expressing CYP2D16 increased with aging in both sexes and was greater in males than in females. The rates of metabolism of bufuralol, a CYP2D-selective substrate, by adrenal microsomal preparations generally correlated with the amount of ZR (and CYP2D16) in the gland. Thus, adrenal xenobiotic-metabolizing activities were greater in males than in females at all ages and increased with aging in males. However, the rates of bufuralol metabolism declined in sexually mature females (14 weeks) from the levels found in prepubertal females (7 weeks) and then increased markedly in retired breeders (30 weeks), suggesting an inhibitory effect of estrogens on enzyme activity. The results indicate that the age and gender differences in adrenal CYP2D16 content are largely determined by differences in the size of the ZR rather than the concentrations of CYP2D16 within cells of the ZR. However, adrenal xenobiotic-metabolizing activities in females seem to be further modulated by an inhibitory effect of estrogens.

The factors that establish and maintain adrenocortical zonation are poorly understood. The capsular adrenal gland of the rat has been shown to develop into a functionally zoned tissue in autotransplanted glands in vivo. To examine this in vitro, capsular gland preparations (largely glomerulosa (zg) with some fasciculata (zf) were cultured in vitro in Eagles MEM (3.6mM K+) for 14 days. Zonal differentiation was determined by immunocytochemical localisation of inner zone antigen (IZA, zf/reticularis specific) and Pref-1 (zg specific). In the absence of further additions these preparations invariably maintained a good zonal arrangement of zg and zf over the whole period, though without significant cellular proliferation. Neither the daily addition of the stimulants, maximally 8.3mM potassium, 1nM ACTH, or 100nM angiotensin II (AII), or the AII type 1 receptor antagonist losartan (10microM) had any significant effect on the glands intrinsic capacity to maintain zonation in vitro. Aldosterone output declined rapidly under control conditions (3.6mM K+), but was stimulated by AII, or high K+ reaching a maximum after 7 days, and thereafter declined. However at higher K+ conditions (5.6mM) aldosterone was not supported by angiotensin II. Corticosterone secretion increased autonomously after 2 days in 3.6mM K+ then declined. At higher K+ conditions corticosterone rapidly declined. The factors studied had no effect on the inherent property of the adrenal gland to express the zg or zf phenotype. However the functional steroidogenic capacity of the adrenocortical cells was affected in a highly specific and complex manner by the added stimulants.

In an attempt to elucidate the mechanism(s) through which the functional adrenal cortex is established, we analyzed immunohistochemically the expression of various markers for the adrenocortical zones, i.e. the zona glomerulosa (zG), the zona fasciculata (zF), and the zona reticularis (zR), as well as markers for the medulla, and further examined the distribution and behavior of DNA-synthesizing cells in rat adrenal glands during development. The results showed that 1) separation of the cortex and medulla, and the development of functional zonation in the cortex began at around the time of birth, 2) at fetal stages when cortical zonation was not established, DNA-synthesizing cells were found scattered throughout the gland, where they proliferated without significant migration, and 3) after birth in the adrenal cortex with established cortical zonation, DNA-synthesizing cells were localized near the undifferentiated zone between zG and zF, and then they migrated centripetally. Cell death appeared to occur in the innermost portion of the cortex, where many resident macrophages are present. These findings illustrate basic processes underlying adrenal development and suggest that the undifferentiated region is apparently the stem cell zone of the adrenal cortex that maintains the cortical zonation.

Adrenal gland autotransplantation, an interesting model of adrenal regeneration, provides the reconstruction of distinct functional and morphological zonae. An immunohistochemical study of the adrenal gland of adult male rats after autotransplantation and endothelin-1 (ET-1) stimulation was carried out. The technique involved total adrenalectomy and immediate autotransplantation of small adrenal pieces under the skin of the dorsal region. The animals were killed 90 days after the autotransplantation and 1 h after intravenous ET-1 administration. Sections of recovered adrenal grafts were incubated with IZAb, a monoclonal antibody which interacts with an antigen (IZAg) predominantly found in rat adrenal inner zones. Saline-treated control autotransplanted animals showed IZAb immunostaining in almost all adrenocortical tissue, with the exception of small clusters of cells beneath the capsule. ET-1-treated animals exhibited an extended zone devoid of immunostaining and located in the subcapsular area. In addition, ET-1-stimulated animals showed significant increases in aldosterone as well as corticosterone concentrations in plasma. These results revealed that ET-1 stimulated the development of an extended subcapsular zone lacking IZAg expression, an effect that suggests its role in zona glomerulosa induction in these animals.

Arginine-vasopressin (AVP) markedly increased basal aldosterone (ALDO) secretion by dispersed zona-glomerulosa (ZG) cells, and its effect was selectively reversed by V1-receptor antagonists (AVP-A1). Corticosterone (B) production by dispersed zona fasciculata (ZF) cells was not affected. The bolus intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of AVP acutely raised the plasma concentrations of both ALDO and B in normal rats, but only that of ALDO in bilaterally adrenalectomized animals bearing regenerated adrenocortical autotransplants, which are deprived of medullary chromaffin cells. Accordingly, AVP raised ALDO and B secretions by adrenal slices (including both cortical and medullary tissues), and only ALDO production by autotransplant quarters. The B response of adrenal slices to AVP was blocked by alpha-helical-CRH and corticotropin-inhibiting peptide (two competitive inhibitors of CRH and ACTH, respectively), but not by 1-alprenolol (a beta-adrenoreceptor antagonist); ALDO response was not affected by any of these antagonists. A 7-day i.p. infusion with AVP increased the volume of ZG cells and ZG-like cells of autotransplants, as well as their basal and maximally angiotensin-II-stimulated ALDO secretory capacity; it also raised the volume, and basal and maximally ACTH-stimulated B secretory capacity of ZF cells, but it did not affect ZF-like cells of autotransplants. The simultaneous administration of AVP-A1 annulled all these effects of AVP. When infused alone, AVP-A1 caused a marked atrophy of ZG cells, coupled with a net drop in their steroidogenic capacity; however, AVP-A1 infusion did not change the morphology and function of either ZF cells or ZG-like and ZF-like cells of autotransplants. Taken together,, our findings allow us to draw the following conclusions: (i) AVP plays an important physiological role in the maintenance and stimulation of ZG growth and mineralocorticoid secretory activity in rats, the source of endogenous AVP exerting adrenoglomerulotropic action probably being adrenal chromaffin cells; and (ii) AVP indirectly stimulates the growth and glucocorticoid secretory activity of rat ZF cells, by activating intramedullary CRH/ACTH system; however, the physiological relevance of this effect of AVP appears to be doubtful.

The function and morphology of adrenal zona-fasciculata (ZF) mitochondria were studied in 4-, 10- and 16-month-old rats, since in this species ageing causes a marked decline in glucocorticoid secretion coupled with high levels of circulating ACTH. Dispersed intact ZF cells displayed a significant age-dependent impairment of their basal pregnenolone (PREG) secretion, but isolated ZF mitochondria showed an increased capacity to convert cholesterol to PREG (the first rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis). These data are in keeping with the contention that the age-related deficit of rat ZF secretion is located prior to the activity of intramitochondrial cholesterol side-chain cleaving enzymes (cytochrome-P450scc). Stereology showed a notable age-dependent increase in the number of mitochondria per unit cell-volume, coupled with a marked decrease in their average volume. The width of the mitochondrial intermembrane space remained unchanged, but its average volume strikingly decreased. This last finding fits well with the enhanced capacity of mitochondria to produce PREG, since intermembrane space is an aqueous barrier to the translocation of free cholesterol from the outer membrane to the cristae, where cytochrome-P450scc is located. In conclusion, the hypothesis is advanced that all these age-related functional and morphological mitochondrial changes are an ACTH-dependent compensatory response enabling ZF cells to partially counteract their decreased glucocorticoid secretory capacity, which in turn is due to the impaired utilization of intracytoplasmic stores of cholesterol esters.

This study describes the morphology of the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) adrenal gland in the perinatal period. Adrenals of fetal monkeys had a broad central zone of large eosinophilic cells (fetal zone) surrounded by a subcapsular band of small dark cells (definitive zone). Adrenals of stillborn and neonatal monkeys had a reduced fetal zone and an expanded definitive zone that was differentiated into distinct zona fasciculata and zona glomerulosa. By day 18 postpartum, no remnant of the fetal zone remained.

Growth of the sheep adrenal was studied during late gestation and the perinatal period. Adrenals were recovered from 28 fetuses taken at D100 (D0: day of mating), D120, D132 and D144, and in 4 newborn animals 3 days after birth (equivalent to D151). Animals were of the Ile de France breed. Cortex (without capsule) and medulla volumes increased respectively by 7.2 and 2.4 between D100 and D151. The 2 parts had the same volume between D100 and D120; thereafter the cortex became predominant, representing 74% of the whole gland at D151. Hypertrophy and hyperplasia were shown after D132 in the cortex (zona fasciculata); they were observed later after D144 in the medulla (central zone). Fifteen fetuses hypophysectomized at D100 or D120 were recovered at D120 or D144. The lack of pituitary inhibited cortical growth (zona fasciculata) and suppressed hypertrophy and hyperplasia. The medulla continued to grow after hypophysectomy but to a lesser extent than in controls.

We present the results obtained in the adrenal gland of white rats (average weight 220 g) following irradiation of the pineal gland with laser light. Irradiation was carried out with a 5 mW Politec 750 Helium-Neon laser. Total irradiation time was 5 min, with rest intervals of 1 min for every minute of irradiation. Pineal gland irradiation was done under "open sky", i.e., directly at the gland. The effects of the suprarenal gland were studied 3, 7 and 10 d postirradiation. Morphological signs of an increasing activity have been observed in all layers of the cortex and in the medulla of the gland. The highest increase was found 7 d after irradiation in the fascicular zone and in the medulla, and after 3 d in the glomerular and reticular zone. We suggest that laser light induces an inhibitory effect observed at the suprarenal gland. This effect is similar to that found following pinealectomy, showing once again that the pineal gland exerts control on the suprarenal gland, mediated by luminous stimuli.