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Stem cell research is the field of science that examines specific cells that can divide indefinitely in culture and give rise to specialized cells to provide therapy for diseases. There are two main types of stem cells—embryonic and somatic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells form in the early stages of embryonic development, and somatic stem cells are adult stem cells found in various tissues in the body. Stem cell research and technology have the potential to replace or repair a person's damaged or dysfunctional cells or tissues in treating or curing diseases.

SIGNIFICANCE: The Human Genome Project will have a profound effect in the twenty-first century, providing the means to identify disease-causing mutations (including those involved in cancer), to design new drugs, to provide human gene therapy, to learn how genes control development, and to understand the origins and evolution of the human race.

Viral infections are caused by viral particles that replicate in the host cell. These viral particles then produce more genetic material for new particles and also incorporate their own genetic material into the host cell’s genome. As part of its immune response, the human immune system attacks these viral particles to undermine their effect on the body.

Prion diseases are rare and fatal degenerative brain disorders caused by mutated proteins in the brain that aggregate and form visible “holes” that show a spongy appearance seen through a microscope, hence the name “spongiform encephalopathies.” Certain prion diseases, such as scrapie (a disease of sheep and goats), and two human diseases, Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD) and kuru, are transmitted by an infectious agent, namely a prion. Variant CJD and Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome are two familial forms of prion diseases and are considered genetically inherited neurodegenerative disorders.

Prion diseases are rare and fatal degenerative brain disorders that are caused by mutated proteins in the brain that aggregate and form visible “holes.” These holes show a spongy appearance seen through a microscope, hence the name “spongiform encephalopathies.” Because these diseases are terminal, treatment is meant to control symptoms that may cause discomfort; there is no cure for the disease state. Certain diseases, such as scrapie (a disease of sheep and goats),and two human diseases, Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD) and kuru, are transmitted by an infectious agent, namely a prion. Variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (vCJD) and Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome are two familial forms of prion disease and are considered inherited neurodegenerative disorders.

A retroviral infection is a disease state caused by a retrovirus that incorporates into a host cell. A retrovirus is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) that has the ability to replicate itself in a host cell. Retroviruses are associated with a variety of diseases, including malignancies, immunodeficiencies, and neurologic disorders.

Proteomics is the study of an organism's complete set of proteins. The term proteome is commonly used to describe all the proteins made by an organism's cells. It can also be described as all the proteins synthesized by a particular cell at a particular time. Protein engineering is the process of developing useful or valuable proteins for practical use. Protein engineering uses two strategies for engineering proteinsrational design and directed evolution. Both techniques have been developed to synthesize and manipulate proteins. To study proteins, one needs to determine the sequence of each protein's amino acids and its corresponding three-dimensional structure.

Biological therapies are treatments designed to improve or restore the ability of the immune system to fight disease and infection and to help protect the body from side effects of other treatments. The immune system consists of a number of different organs and structures, including the spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow, tonsils, and white blood cells, the latter of which play an especially important role in fighting disease. There are a number of different types of white blood cells, including B and T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) lymphocytes. B lymphocytes, also called B cells, produce antibodies that attack other cells, and T lymphocytes, or T cells, directly attack diseased cells and signal other immune system cells to defend the body. The NK cells make chemicals that bind to and kill foreign invaders in the body.

Prion diseases diseases are rare and fatal degenerative brain disorders caused by an abnormal version of a protein in the brain. This protein aggregates and forms visible “holes” that show a spongy appearance seen through a microscope; hence, the name “spongiform encephalopathies.” Approximately 10 to 15 percent of prion diseases are genetically transmissible, whereas the remainder occur from unknown risk factors or are acquired through infection with prions.