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Zinabu Asfaw,1 Mengistu Mitiku,2,3 Haftom Temesgen Abebe,2,4 Mussie Tesfay Atsbeha5 1Department of Public Health, Adigrat University, Adigrat City, Tigrai, Ethiopia; 2School of Public Health, Mekelle University, Mekelle City, Tigrai, Ethiopia; 3Research and Community Engagement Coordination Office, Mekelle University, Mekelle City, Tigrai, Ethiopia; 4Laboratory Interdisciplinary Statistical Data Analysis, Mekelle University, Mekelle city, Tigrai, Ethiopia; 5School of Medicine, Mekelle University, Mekelle City, Tigrai, EthiopiaCorrespondence: Zinabu Asfaw, Department of Public Health, Adigrat University, P.O. Box: 50, Adigrat City, Ethiopia, Email zinabu.asfaww@gmail.comBackground: Homelessness among children is a significant problem in most nations of the world. Children who experienced homelessness are most often unable to get secured and adequate housing. Such problems expose them to a range of destructive practices such as substance use. This study, therefore, was designed to evaluate the level and determinants of substance use by children who experienced homelessness in major cities of Northern Ethiopia.Methods: This cross-sectional study was undertaken from October 1, 2019 to February 30, 2020. We conducted street-based outreach searching to get a representative sample of the city’s children who experienced homelessness and a total of 422 were recruited. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS version 20. Regression analysis was done to identify factors associated with substance use and statistical significance was declared at p < 0.05 and 95% confidence interval.Results: More than 80% of the children who experienced homelessness use alcohol, cigarette or chat. Marriage status of parents before the child experiences homelessness being divorce (AOR = 8.53, 95% CI: 1.87– 38.89), occupational status of mother being a daily laborer (AOR = 2.78, 95% CI: 0.83, 9.31), child relationship status with parents before child experiences homelessness (AOR = 0.08, 95% CI: 0.02– 0.30) and parents’ residential status before child experiences homelessness being rural (AOR = 5.63, 95% CI: 1.77– 17.89) are the independent variables that established statistically significant association with the outcome variable, substance use.Conclusion and Recommendation: The majority of the children who experienced homelessness are exposed to substance use, particularly alcohol and cigarette. Efforts are needed by concerned bodies of the region to work on factors that predispose to homelessness and strategically safeguard the health and wellbeing of the children.Keywords: homelessness, substance use, children, Northern Ethiopia

Introduction. Access to safe drinking water is essential to health, and it is a basic human right. However, drinking water treatment plant efficiency and its water quality are not well investigated in low-income countries including Ethiopia. Methods. A laboratory-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 75 water samples. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS version 22 to generate descriptive statistics, and one-way ANOVA was used to test statistically significant difference. Results. Physicochemical qualities of the water samples from tap water sources were found to be pH (6.88 ± 0.05), turbidity (5.15 ± 0.006 NTU), electrical conductivity (170.6 ± 0.1 μS/cm), residual chlorine (0.19 ± 0.003 mg/L), and fluoride (1.17 ± 0.009 mg/L). The removal efficiency of turbidity, total hardness, and nitrate was found to be 94.4%, 52.3%, and 88.7%, respectively. Removal efficiency of the treatment plant for total coliforms up to 91.6% (15 ± 0.26 CFU/100 mL in tap water) and faecal coliforms up to 99% (1.51 ± 0.03 CFU/100 mL in tap water) was recorded. Parameters of pH, temperature, and faecal coliform were statistically significant different at p < 0.05 in tap water source. The overall efficiency of the treatment plant (68.5%) and the water quality index (76) were recorded. Conclusion. Based on the results, some of the investigated parameters of water quality (turbidity, residual chlorine, total coliform, and faecal coliform) were found to be not within the permissible limits of WHO guideline values for drinking water quality. The water quality index of the water samples was categorized under good water quality. To adequately treat drinking water and improve the treatment plant, adequate preliminary treatments like screening to reduce the incoming organic loading, proper chlorination of the drinking water system, and frequent monitoring and maintenance of the treatment plant system are required.

Background Access to safe drinking water is one of the basic human rights and is critical to health. However, much of the world’s population lacks access to adequate and safe water. Approximately 884,000, 000 people in the world still do not get their drinking water from safe sources; Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for over one third of this number. It is estimated that 80% of all illnesses in the world are related to use of unsafe and contaminated water. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted from August 1st 2017 to July 30th 2018 in three randomly selected woreda (districts) of Eastern Zone Tigrai. Water samples were examined for total coliforms and thermotelorant coliforms using the most probable number method. Standard biochemical testing was performed on samples that tested positive to identify the genus of bacteria. The contaminant risk of water sources were assessed using the sanitary inspection checklist of the World Health Organization. The results were interpreted using World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality. Data was collected using laboratory checklist and sanitary inspection check list. It was entered, cleared and analyzed using SPSS version 21.0 and a variable having a P Results A total of 290 drinking water samples were analyzed for bacteriological quality. A total of 32.4% (n = 94) of water sources showed contamination with faecal and total coliforms. Of these 3.4% (n = 10) samples were contaminated with total coliforms and 29% (n = 84) contaminated with faecal coliforms. The leading water contaminant organisms were Escherichia coli (62.4%), Legionella species (8.5%), and Shigella species (7.5%) respectively. Based on WHO criteria, 15% of water sources were grouped in the very high risk group. Animal excreta and inadequate fencing of water sources were significantly associated with water contamination rate. Conclusion Our findings suggest that most water sources in woredas of Eastern Tigrai are contaminated by faecal coliforms. Therefore, regular sanitary inspection, bacteriological analysis, and adequate fencing should be mandatory to protect drinking water sources from faecal contamination.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to identify determinants of late antennal care at first visit in health facilities of eastern Tigray, Northern Ethiopia 2018. Result : Women with unplanned pregnancy were 4 times more likely attending late (AOR= 4.03, 95%, CI: 1.56-5.67). Participants who attended antenatal care after 16 weeks for previous pregnancies were 3.9 times attending late (AOR= 3.9, 95% CI: 1.98-7.68). Participants who did not supported by partner for antenatal visit were1.3 more likely attending late (AOR= 1.29,95%, CI: 1.05-4.67). Similarly women who recognized their pregnancy at three months or late were 4.7 attending late ( AOR= 4.7,95%,CI: 2.49-9.04). Women who received adequate time by health care providers during antenatal care follow up were 53% less likely attending late. As a conclusion, unplanned pregnancy, partner support, late recognizing of pregnancy; gravidity and provided adequate time for antenatal care were the determinants of late attending of antenatal care. There for responsible bodies should give focuses on utilization of family planning, increasing awareness of pregnancy symptoms and health provisional provide adequate time during visits.