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This study presents longitudinal data analysis of 6 years of reading scores on a large-scale statewide performance-based alternate assessment for 214 students who are deaf/hard of hearing and have an additional cognitive disability. Assessment scores were examined by complexity level, within grade-level bands, and individually over time. Results indicated that even though the depth of content knowledge increased over time as defined by test specifications, students generally maintained a stable level of proficiency as determined by the state performance standards. Interpretation of results underscores the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to reading instruction among special educators, teachers of the deaf, and speech-language pathologists to improve outcomes of this population.

Although there have been any number of national reading reform efforts over the years, there is little evidence that such efforts have been sustained in schools over time. This study focused on addressing 2 questions: To what extent have Reading First schools in 2 states sustained the key elements of this reform over time? To what extent has student reading achievement continued to improve in these states over time? An online survey sent to all schools participating in Reading First in 2 states, follow-up interviews, and state reading achievement scores served as data sources. Findings indicated that most elements of Reading First were maintained 3 years after Reading First funding was terminated. Respondents were positive about the effect of Reading First in their schools. Schools in both states had shown a steady increase in the percentage of students who were proficient over the time of the initiative. In 1 state, this rate continued to improve, although the pace of the increase diminished; in the other state, there was a small but steady yearly decrease in the percentage of students achieving proficiency. We discuss factors contributing to this difference in achievement.

Current legislation encourages schools to educate students with disabilities (SWDs) in general education settings to the greatest extent appropriate. However, it is unclear whether inclusion in general education settings provides SWDs a sufficient opportunity to learn the academic content assessed by accountability measures. This initial study was designed to (a) describe the extent to which general and special educators provide their eighth-grade classes with an opportunity to learn the state-specific standards and to (b) examine the extent to which SWDs experience a differentiated opportunity to learn compared with their overall class. Across three states, we trained 38 general and special educators to use an online teacher log to report on various opportunity-to-learn (OTL) indices for 46 mathematics and reading classes and 89 nested SWDs. Based on an average logging period of 151 days, the results indicated that this sample's SWDs included in general education classes experienced less time on standards, more non-instructional time, and less content coverage than their overall class. Limitations and implications for policy and future research are discussed.

Alternate assessments have been used for the last 10 years to evaluate schools' efforts to teach children with significant cognitive disabilities. However, few studies have examined the reading skills of children who participate in these assessments. The purpose of this study was to extend understanding of the reading skills of this population by administering early-grade word and passage reading fluency curriculum-based measures to a sample of 7,440 students in Grades 3 through 8 and 11. Overall, the performance on curriculum-based measures and the relationship with alternate assessment performance varied based upon disability, grade, and level of alternate assessment. The authors discuss implications for test developers and teachers along with future directions for research. (Contains 5 tables.)

Large-scale assessment programs, including alternate assessments based on alternate achievement standards (AA-AAS), must provide evidence of technical quality and validity. This study provides information about the technical quality of one AA-AAS by evaluating the standard setting for the science component. The assessment was designed to have three levels of cognitive difficulty, where each student is administered only the most appropriate level. The current study investigated panelists' levels of understanding during standard setting to explore whether there were differences based on cognitive level of the test. Data were collected at various time points through the use of open- and closed-ended questionnaires. Panelists reported that they understood the Performance Level Descriptor development and standard setting tasks and had common concerns and levels of understandings across levels of the AA-AAS.

Introduction: This study investigated differential item functioning (DIF) of test items on Pennsylvania's Alternate System of Assessment (PASA) for students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities and what the reasons for the differences may be. Methods: The Wilcoxon signed ranks test was used to analyze differences in the scores of the students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities who took the Grade 3-4 or 7-8 Level A PASA compared to matched peers without visual impairments. The students with visual impairments were analyzed as a group and by level of functional vision. Logical analyses of videotaped assessments of the students with visual impairments were conducted to identify potential sources of DIF. Results: Among the functional vision groups, 17 instances in reading and 22 instances in math were flagged for DIF, with 14 skills in reading and 13 in math emerging as harder for students with visual impairments. The types of items that were significantly different included those involving money, matching, and selecting the smallest. Potential reasons for the differences included students needing a better orientation to test materials; the influence of lucky guesses based on distractor characteristics; and the influence of accommodations, such as the substitution of objects. Discussion: The results demonstrate the complexity and importance of evaluating the validity of alternate performance-based assessments for students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities. The themes that emerged suggest the need to structure alternate assessment tasks for consistent orientation to materials and to consider closely how accommodations affect the difficulty of the tasks. Implications for practitioners: Practitioners should consider how the reading progression for their students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities is related to alternate standards and the instruction that is in place to learn concepts that were missed incidentally. Practitioners can help improve alternate assessments by communicating with their states about the types of tasks that are difficult to accommodate in their current format or by requesting guidance in making meaningful accommodations that maintain the intent of the items. (Contains 3 tables and 1 box.)

Introduction: This study investigated the use of accommodations and the performance of students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities on the Pennsylvania Alternate System of Assessment (PASA)yCoan alternate performance-based assessment. Methods: Differences in test scores on the most basic level (level A) of the PASA of 286 students with visual impairments, grouped into one of three functional vision levels, in grades 3/4 or 7/8 were analyzed descriptively as well as inferentially using the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis and ad hoc Mann Whitney U tests. In addition, teachers of students with visual impairments viewed the videotaped assessments of 257 of these students to record accommodations used. Accommodations data were analyzed for patterns and relationships with test item types. Chi-Squares were calculated. Results: There was a significant difference in test scores by functional vision level, with students who predominantly use vision performing significantly better than students who use a combination of vision and other senses or use other senses in place of vision. The accommodations used generally matched a student's reported level of functional vision with layout and presentation accommodations being the most prevalent. Discussion: The types of accommodations selected may be due to the structure of alternate assessments but also raise questions about what is a progression in reading for students who do not access pictures and print with vision. Differences in performance raise questions of accessibility vs. ability and the level of difficulty of test items when accommodations are used. Implications for practitioners: Practitioners should advocate for guidance from alternate assessments on accommodation use that mirrors the intent of test items and consider how state alternate standards translate when tasks addressing those standards are adapted for students with visual impairments. Test developers should consider students with visual impairments when designing and interpreting alternate assessment test items. (Contains 6 tables.)

One of the primary challenges in developing effective accountability systems is determining how best to include students with disabilities. The purpose of this paper is to report on the initial implementation of one option for including students with disabilities into the accountability system in the United States. In 2007, federal guidance allowed states to develop an Alternate Assessment based on Modified Academic Achievement Standards (AA-MAS) for a small group of students with disabilities. An evaluation of the development and implementation of this assessment within one state, Pennsylvania, is presented. Lessons learned and recommendations are offered for educational leaders considering developing an alternate assessment as a method to include additional students with disabilities into accountability systems. (Contains 2 figures.)

Amid budget cuts in U.S. public schools, the spotlight is on how to make less effective teachers more effective--fast. The authors describe virtual coaching--in which a coach interacts electronically with a teacher as a lesson unfolds--as a promising way to help teachers with weak teaching skills. Virtual coaching uses online and mobile technology (termed bug in ear) to allow a coach located down the hall or across the country to observe a teacher's lesson and offer discreet, running feedback through an earpiece the teacher wears. Rock and colleagues, who have worked as virtual coaches to dozens of teachers, describe how such a set-up can help struggling novices break through to solid teaching skills. Because the coach provides feedback, helpful criticism, and suggestions as a lesson progresses, virtual coaching can shape teaching, and teachers' awareness of their weaknesses, in a way traditional coaching can't. It also saves time and money. The authors discuss the skills and conditions needed to make virtual coaching successful, and the kind of technology and equipment both teacher and coach need to proceed (including sample prices). (Contains 1 figure.)

This article reports on the student achievement outcomes for third graders in Reading First (RF) schools in Pennsylvania over the five years of implementation for the group as a whole, for disaggregated groups of third graders, and for third graders who received reading instruction in RF schools for one, two, and three years. We also present a school-level growth measure for representing school improvement and for characterizing the success of RF in Pennsylvania. Results indicate that third-grade students in these RF schools are making substantially more progress in third-grade reading than are students in other schools in Pennsylvania, there is an increase of nearly 24% of students performing at proficient or advanced level over the five years, and the students in the below basic range on the achievement measure declined nearly 18%. Further, the disaggregated data show that the achievement gap, though not closed, was reduced for all groups of third graders. Finally, nearly 80% of the RF schools were successful in accomplishing the two goals of Reading First: an increase in the percentage of students at grade level, and a reduction in the percentage of students who were seriously below grade level. (Contains 6 tables, 3 figures and 2 notes.)

Virtual bug-in-the-ear technology presents one tool that allows practitioners and university educators to use to attract, prepare, and retain high-quality teachers. The experience of Project TEEACH--which stands for Transforming Elementary Educators into Advocates, Change Agents, and Highly Qualified Special Educators--based at the University of Alabama suggests that simple technology tools could be used effectively to support teachers through their most challenging instructional situations. Such coaching provides the kind of at-the-elbow support that can be most beneficial to young teachers. (Contains 1 table.)

In the US, there is a significant number of learning-disabled high school students included in regular science classrooms. It has been argued that students with learning disabilities can succeed in science if they receive the kind of instruction they need. To facilitate such instruction, the special education teacher is often incorporated into the class along with the learning disabled students. We observed 53 high school science lessons from ten pairs of science and special-education teachers who were responsible for delivering instruction to groups of students, some of whom were learning-disabled. We analyzed narrative notes collected in these lessons reflecting the kinds of classroom activities, organization of work, and teachers' roles. In addition, we interviewed the teachers individually to gain a better understanding of these inclusive classes. The underlying question of this research was whether inclusive classes with two teachers delivered the type of science education that is better than solo-teaching in addressing the needs of learning-disabled students. Our evidence indicates that even with a special-education teacher present in the class, learning-disabled students usually did not receive a science education that met their needs. We elaborate on the reasons for this problem and make suggestions for improvement.

Although the idea of educational coaching is not new, the way teachers-in-training across six west Alabama counties are receiving job-embedded support is far from routine. Educational consultants 764 miles away are pioneering the use of virtual coaching for professional development. From their offices at the Pennsylvania Training and Technical Assistance Network (PaTTAN) in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, consultants use online and mobile technology to coach special education teachers and paraeducators in four outlying public school districts. In the most effective coaching and supervision paradigms, feedback to teachers is immediate (Scheeler, McAfee, & Ruhl, 2004). However, many coaches do not achieve immediacy in the traditional plan-observe-conference cycle used by many. Bug-in-ear technology is a proven method for improving the professional practice of frontline practitioners. Consisting mainly of a portable two-way radio with earpiece and microphone, bug-in-ear devices allow coaches or supervisors to give teachers immediate feedback while they are delivering instruction in their classrooms. While the Pennsylvania project has just begun, the authors have analyzed and reported data on 15 practicing teachers who participated in the first Project TEEACH-related bug-in-ear study (Rock et al., in press). Quantitative and qualitative results indicated that the advanced online bug-in-ear technology was a practical and efficient way to provide immediate job-embedded feedback, resulting in four noteworthy outcomes. First, the climate in the teachers' classrooms improved significantly. During instructional interactions, the teachers used more specific, descriptive praise and fewer reprimands contributing to a nurturing, student-centered learning environment. Second, the teachers' use of research-based practices increased significantly. Third, students' on-task behavior improved from 73.8% to 92.7%. Fourth, the teachers viewed the advanced online bug-in-ear technology as a powerful tool for improving the teaching and learning process.

Since the 2001-02 school year, the accountability provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) have shaped much of the work of public school teachers and administrators in the United States. NCLB explicitly prohibits schools from excluding students with disabilities from the accountability system and requires not only participation of "all" students in statewide accountability assessments but also reporting of the results for students with disabilities along with other students and as a disaggregated group. From the beginning of these requirements, lawmakers recognized that there would be a small group of students with disabilities for whom the regular assessment, even with accommodations, would not be appropriate and they authorized states to develop an alternate assessment based on alternate achievement standards (AA-AAS) for this group of students. More recently, responding to pressures from the field, additional flexibility has been granted to develop an additional alternate assessment based on modified grade-level achievement standards (AA-MAS) for students with disabilities who present with persistent academic difficulties. It is expected that approximately 2% of the total student population might be included in this new alternate assessment. This article examines the decisions that need to be made by individual states to determine the target population for this new alternate assessment and the policy implications of these decisions. (Contains 5 tables, 3 figures and 1 footnote.)

After the passage of PL 94-142 in 1975 guaranteeing a free, appropriate, public education to all students with disabilities, multiple reauthorizations of IDEA have refined, revised, and renewed the nation's moral and pedagogical commitment to providing well-planned, public, inclusive, and appropriate education to all students with disabilities. But conflicting views of where that education should take place, what that education should consist of, and how that education should be delivered have continued to plague the field of special education. In this article, we provide an historical perspective on the arguments over where, what and how. We open four "windows" on special education service delivery in four different settings in Pennsylvania to illustrate contemporary interpretations and contemporary public policy related to where, what, and how. In the end, we raise questions about whether current, fully inclusive special education practices fulfill the promise of PL-94-142 to provide a special and appropriate education to students with disabilities. (Contains 1 note and 1 figure.)

Coteaching involves 2 certified teachers: 1 general educator and 1 special educator. They share responsibility for planning, delivering, and evaluating instruction for a diverse group of students, some of whom are students with disabilities. In this article, the authors review models of coteaching and the research base for coteaching and describe coteaching as it is currently practiced. After arguing that educators have not yet realized the potential of coteaching, the authors propose a new framework for looking at coteaching and a blueprint to guide its implementation differently in different instructional environments.

An observational study of reading instruction, using the MS-CISSAR protocol, was conducted in general education classrooms, resource classrooms, and self-contained special education/deaf education classrooms in Grades 1 through 4 in public schools within the tri-state area of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. Participants were 24 students who are deaf or hard of hearing and 17 teachers of reading for these students. Results indicated that reading activities varied significantly by instructional setting and grade level enrolled. In addition, teacher behaviors were significantly different by instructional setting, grade level enrolled, reading curriculum level, and students' level of hearing loss. (Contains 6 tables.)

In recent years, special educators' roles and responsibilities have undergone significant transformations deriving from both internal and external sources. This article initially reviews some of the reform movements that have sought to bring research-based practices into the classroom, particularly for students considered exceptional or at-risk. Although these reforms have changed both special and general education, they may not have necessarily improved them. Moreover, these reforms may actually have moved teaching practices further away from the research-based practices that they were actually intended to promote. This article examines the popular practice of coteaching where general and special educators work together to teach a diverse group of students. Although intuitively appealing, the practice often bears little resemblance to the research base on effective instruction and programs for students with disabilities.

Walter Cronkite High School is a comprehensive high school of nearly 4,000 students, located in New York City. The population of students with disabilities includes many students with severe and low-incidence disabilities, including 70 students with visual or hearing impairments and 20 students with orthopedic impairments. Cronkite High School's academic program reflects the belief that if students with disabilities can choose among a motivating set of intellectual options, receive appropriate academic support, and assume responsibility for their learning, they will be successful. The school puts that belief into practice through an "assembled puzzle" of academic opportunities, academic supports, and social opportunities designed to respond to highly varied student interests and academic needs. We describe "how the school works" through case studies of three students with learning disabilities and through an analysis of the high school transcripts of 36 students with disabilities who are recent graduates.

Located in the Florida panhandle, Apalachee High School has a student population of 1,894 students, 13% of whom have identified disabilities. The school has a highly experienced teaching staff and a special education faculty that provides acknowledged leadership in the school. Apalachee includes students with disabilities in all aspects of school life and sustains a high level of community involvement in students' success. The graphic metaphor used to represent Apalachee's approach is a set of globes and pathways that represent the academic programs and the support structures that students use to progress within and between programs. Three student case studies help to illustrate how the "pathways" respond to students with disabilities at different points on a continuum of academic and social needs and abilities. Four-year transcripts for 39 students reflect the range of opportunities and supports (pathways) that characterize Apalachee and are illustrated by the three students we shadowed.

The author located students with severe emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) who had been assigned to separate day schools with partial hospitalization treatment facilities because their public school programs did not sufficiently meet their needs, then conducted interviews at 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months postsecondary school as part of a large 5-year study of factors influencing the transition process for students with serious emotional disturbance (SED). The findings were consistent with those from previous reports on the employment and schooling participation rates of students with EBD despite the fact that this sample had more severe disabilities and were educated in more restrictive environments than most previously reported samples of students with SED/EBD. Most revealing, however, were the unstable employment and schooling patterns of individual participants over the course of the 2 years of the study, which were illustrated by their career paths after high school. The author speculates as to whether it is appropriate to judge the success of school programs by the "long-term" outcomes for former students with SED/EBD in their adult worlds.

In this reanalysis of narrative notes collected in a larger study of co-teaching, the reading and writing demands of high school social studies classes were explored. Eight pairs of teachers (one special education teacher, one social studies teacher) from five high schools in Western Pennsylvania and New York were observed co-teaching in social studies for 3-6 periods each. Observers were trained to document teacher and student behaviors in narrative notes; each five-minute segment was coded based on the literacy demands of the class. Results showed little reading and writing by students or teachers. Implications of these findings are discussed. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

Co-teaching is a popular strategy for implementing the inclusion of students with disabilities within secondary general education classrooms. However, we have little data regarding its effectiveness under routine conditions of educational practice. This study examined whether there was an additive effect of the special education teacher on the instructional experiences of students with disabilities as compared with the experiences of the same students taught by only the general education teacher under routine conditions. Observers used time sampling methods to document how students with disabilities spent their time in 11 middle school co-taught classes. Statistically significant differences were found for targeted students in terms of general education teacher interaction and individual instruction. General education teachers spent significantly less time with students with disabilities when the special education teacher was present. In addition, students with disabilities received significantly more individual instruction when the special education teacher was present. However, these differences were of limited practical significance.

This article describes a statewide project in which weekly progress monitoring of mathematics was implemented with 120 special education students. Curriculum-based measurement probes for computation and concepts/applications skills were administered weekly over seven months. Students were assessed at levels identified as instructional by their teachers, and goals for performance were set based on recommendations from the research literature. Improvements of 0.38 digits per week (in computation) and 0.38 points per week (in concepts/applications) were found across students. A total of 66% of students achieved the expected goals in computation and 37% in concepts/applications. These levels of improvement were comparable to those reported in the literature for general education students. Perceived benefits and challenges of conducting progress monitoring in mathematics are discussed. (Contains 3 tables and 3 figures.)

A study involving three students (ages 7-9) with severe disabilities found they were academically engaged during a significantly higher number of intervals when a paraprofessional was positioned close to the student. Students and paraprofessionals were more likely to be verbally interactive than physically when the student was actively academically engaged. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Pennsylvania requires intervention-assistance services prior to special education referral. This study evaluated the use of instructional support teams (ISTs) in nine urban Pennsylvania elementary schools with 140 children referred for intervention assistance due to academic and/or behavioral difficulties. Results suggested that the intervention assistance process did not significantly change educational outcomes for poor performing, at-risk, or mildly disabled students. (Contains references.) (DB)

Discussion of special education at the turn of the century raises concerns about the abandonment of core values and professional responsibility (as in the emphasis on general rather than special education), adoption of methodologies (such as co-teaching) without any evidence of effectiveness, and a "one size fits all" approach (inclusion of disabled students in state- and district-wide assessments). (Contains references.) (DB)

Interviews with, and classroom observations of, 17 teachers in Queensland (Australia) and Pennsylvania examined co-teaching approaches to provide support to students with disabilities in inclusive secondary classrooms. Co-teaching partnerships in both countries were dominated by content subject teachers with special educators in "monitoring" or "helping" roles. Teachers in both countries felt that well implemented co-teaching resulted in academic and social gains for all students. (Contains seven references.) (Author/DB)

This article by a recipient of the Council for Exceptional Children's Research Award presents the author's perspective of research as detective work, starting from the investigation of dyslexia, and progressing to such topics as the design of secondary education for students with learning disabilities, dropouts, classroom and instructional variables, and educating students with chronic medical problems in inclusive schools. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

After spending one day weekly during fall 1998 observing how students with disabilities are served in an Edison school, a teacher educator concludes that Nancy Zollers and Arun Ramanathan did the Seven Hills Charter School a great injustice in their December 1998 "Kappan" article. (Contains 17 references.) (MLH)

How four experienced elementary school teachers reflected on a social studies lesson they had taught and then viewed on videotape was studied. Teachers most frequently used experience and theory to explain their instructional approaches, and they appreciated the opportunity to reflect on their own practices. (SLD)

Structured interviews with 150 elementary students with learning disabilities found that they accurately perceived that special education is intended to provide extra help for children with academic problems. Students reported they liked special education classes, though some missed instruction or recreational activities in their mainstream class during pull-out for special education. (DB)

Presents the author's views on the nature of educational intervention in learning disabilities through a discussion of distinctions between intervention, remediation, tutoring, and accommodations; optimal characteristics of intervention research; ethical issues, research design, and measurement of change; and barriers to conducting intervention studies and dissemination of research. (DB)