Search

In this paper, we propose a wireless sensor network for pavement health monitoring exploiting the Zigbee technology. Accelerometers are adopted to measure local accelerations linked to pavement vibrations, which are then converted into displacements by a signal processing algorithm. Each device consists of an on-board unit buried in the roadway and a roadside unit. The on-board unit comprises a microcontroller, an accelerometer and a Zigbee module that transfers acceleration data wirelessly to the roadside unit. The roadside unit consists of a Raspberry Pi, a Zigbee module and a USB Zigbee adapter. Laboratory tests were conducted using a vibration table and with three different accelerometers, to assess the system capability. A typical displacement signal from a five-axle truck was applied to the vibration table with two different displacement peaks, allowing for two different vehicle speeds. The prototyped system was then encapsulated in PVC packaging, deployed and tested in a real-life road situation with a fatigue carousel featuring rotating truck axles. The laboratory and on-road measurements show that displacements can be estimated with an accuracy equivalent to that of a reference sensor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study introduces a rectenna, functioning as an RF envelope detector, utilizing a 16 nm bulk MOS transistor (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) for nonlinear detection. A circuit architecture is presented alongside a detailed design methodology and simulations. The detector efficiently demodulates a 2.4 GHz OOK (On/Off Keying) encoded signal, comprising a 32-bit word, within 320 μs. Remarkably, the circuit operates passively, requiring no voltage supply or bias current, and functions effectively with − 53 dBm input power at the antenna. This capability enables the decoding of 32-bit unsigned integer radio packets as a wakeup radio event. The effectiveness of the envelope detector is substantiated through comprehensive simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The backoff algorithm employed by the medium access control (MAC) protocol of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard has a significant impact on the overall performance of the wireless sensor network (WSN). This algorithm helps the MAC protocol resolve the contention among multiple nodes in accessing the wireless medium. The standard binary exponent backoff (BEB) used by the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol relies on an incremental method that doubles the size of the contention window after the occurrence of a collision. In a previous work, we proposed the adaptive backoff algorithm (ABA), which adapts the contention window's size to the value of the probability of collision, thus relating the contention resolution to the size of the WSN in an indirect manner. ABA was studied and tested using contention window sizes of up to 256. However, the latter limit on the contention window size led to degradation in the network performance as the size of the network exceeded 50 nodes. This paper introduces the Improved ABA (I-ABA), an improved version of ABA. In the design of I-ABA we observe the optimal values of the contention window that maximize performance under varying probabilities of collision. Based on that, we use curve fitting techniques to derive a mathematical expression that better describes the adaptive change in the contention window. This forms the basis of I-ABA, which demonstrates scalability and the ability to enhance performance. As a potential area of application for I-ABA, we target wireless body area networks (WBANs) that are large-scale, that is, composed of hundreds of sensor nodes. WBAN is a major application area for the emerging Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm. We evaluate the performance of I-ABA based on simulations. Our results show that, in a large-scale WBAN, I-ABA can achieve superior performance to both ABA and the standard BEB in terms of various performance metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the growing adoption of battery energy storage systems in renewable energy sources, electric vehicles (EVs), and portable electronic devices, the effective management of battery systems has become increasingly critical. The advent of wireless battery management systems (wBMSs) represents a significant innovation in battery management technology. Traditional wired battery management systems (BMSs) face challenges, including complexity, increased weight, maintenance difficulties, and a higher chance of connection failure. In contrast, wBMSs offer a robust solution, eliminating physical connections. wBMSs offer enhanced flexibility, reduced packaging complexity, and improved reliability. Given that wBMSs are still in a preliminary stage, this review paper explores their evolution, current state, and future directions. A comprehensive survey of state-of-the-art wBMS technologies, including academic and commercial solutions, is elaborated in this paper. We compare wireless communication technologies like Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Zigbee, Near-Field Communication (NFC), Wi-Fi, and cellular networks in the context of wBMSs. We discuss their performance in terms of efficiency, reliability, scalability, and security. Despite its promising outlook, wBMSs still face challenges such as data security, signal interference, regulatory and standardization issues, and competition from the continued advancement of wired BMS technologies, making the advantages of wBMSs less evident. This paper concludes with guidelines for future research and development of wBMSs, aiming to address these challenges and pave the way for a broad adoption of wBMSs across various applications. This paper aims to inspire further research and innovation in the field, contributing to developing an industry-ready wBMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the need for real-time sag monitoring of Overhead Power Lines (OPL) for electricity transmission, this article presents the implementation of a hardware and software system for online monitoring of OPL cables. The mathematical model based on differential equations and the methods of algorithmic calculation of OPL cable sag are presented. Considering that, based on the mathematical model presented, the calculation of cable sag can be done in different ways depending on the sensors used, and the presented application uses a variety of sensors. Therefore, a direct calculation is made using one of the different methods. Subsequently, the verification relations are highlighted directly, and in return, the calculation by the alternative method, which uses another group of sensors, generates both a verification of the calculation and the functionality of the sensors, thus obtaining a defect observer of the sensors. The hardware architecture of the OPL cable online monitoring application is presented, together with the main characteristics of the sensors and communication equipment used. The configurations required to transmit data using the ModBUS and ZigBee protocols are also presented. The main software modules of the OPL cable condition monitoring application are described, which ensure the monitoring of the main parameters of the power line and the visualisation of the results both on the electricity provider's intranet using a web server and MySQL database, and on the Internet using an Internet of Things (IoT) server. This categorisation of the data visualisation mode is done in such a way as to ensure a high level of cyber security. Also, the global accuracy of the entire OPL cable sag calculus system is estimated at 0.1%. Starting from the mathematical model of the OPL cable sag calculation, it goes through the stages of creating such a monitoring system, from the numerical simulations carried out using Matlab to the real-time implementation of this monitoring application using Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench (LabVIEW). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Time Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH) protocol, defined in the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, is tailored to meet the stringent communication requirements of industrial applications. TSCH combines Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) to efficiently allocate resources and schedule communications in IoT networks. In this paper, we conduct a comparative performance assessment of TSCH-based schedulers under varying traffic loads and patterns using the COOJA emulator. Our study focuses on two schedulers for TSCH: Minimal Scheduling and Orchestra, which includes two key variants - Orchestra Sender Based Shared (O-SBS) and Orchestra Receiver Based Shared (O-RBS). To comprehensively assess their performance in IoT networks, we conduct an in-depth evaluation across multiple key parameters: Packet Delivery and Acknowledgment Ratios, Radio-On duty cycle, End-to-End Latency, Stability, and Embedded Firmware's Memory footprint. Our results indicate that Orchestra SBS excels in ensuring high reliability and low latency in high-traffic scenarios. Meanwhile, TSCH Minimal Scheduling exhibits superior energy efficiency, and it boasts a smaller embedded firmware memory footprint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various faults of photovoltaic (PV) modules inevitably occur in the work process, since PV modules are installed in hostile situation. To obtain the types of failure, a novel fault diagnosis method based on back propagation (BP) neural network with Levenberg-Marquardt (L-M) algorithm for PV modules is proposed. Through the in-depth analysis the output of PV modules under normal and fault conditions, the input variables of the diagnosis model are acquired. The high-speed and real-time fault diagnosis model for PV modules is first designed based on TMS320VC5402 DSP and long-distance wireless fault diagnosis is realized by Zigbee technology. The simulation and experimental results show that the fault diagnosis method for PV modules based on BP network with L-M algorithm can effectively detect four types of fault for PV modules such as open circuit, short circuit, partial shading and abnormal degradation. The numerical results verify the effectiveness and correctness of the proposed method, which can provide a great educational benefit of PV operation technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system that enables wirelessly linked devices to be tracked and managed remotely. It uses Ethernet protocols and the principles behind wireless sensor networks. Soil moisture monitoring, hydraulic pressure monitoring, soil testing, preventing trespassing through motion detection, and conserving energy are only some of the agricultural and irrigational operations that are the subject of this research. The implementation shown in this work breaks down larger systems into several smaller ones. A subsystem incorporates a vibration warning sensor, pump, and the ability to monitor soil moisture and hydraulic pressure to detect movement in and around the associated field. The second method will be utilized to deter intruders by picking up on their presence when they move within range of the necessary field barrier. Sensors for measuring current and voltage will be included for energy management regulation. It will be utilized for controlling the system. The main system will receive data through ZigBee from the first and second subsystems, monitor them, and then transfer them to the network router via ZigBee, where the necessary data will be shown on a website home page alongside the appropriate Ethernet protocols and current operating data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard have important applications in many fields, such as the Internet of Things and smart cities because of their low energy consumption. Hybrid carrier sense multiple access/time division multiple access (CSMA/TDMA) is the key technique to reduce energy consumption in the standard, but it also increases packet delay and reduces network throughput. Although the cluster tree topology is a typical topology defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, there are few efficient medium access control (MAC) protocols specifically for this type of topology. To this end, we present an improved hybrid CSMA/TDMA MAC protocol based on a sharable slot algorithm for WSNs with cluster tree topology, called sharable slot-based MAC (SS-MAC). By designing the operating mechanism and frame structure, improving the hybrid CSMA/TDMA and channel-hopping techniques of IEEE 802.15.4 MAC, and introducing a sharable slot algorithm to wake up tree nodes asynchronously as well as a short address strategy to identify member nodes, the proposed protocol improves packet delay and throughput under the premise of low collision and low node energy consumption. Moreover, we derive mathematical expressions of the parameters of the sharable slot algorithm and evaluate the energy consumption, throughput and packet delay of the SS-MAC based on the queue modeling of packet arrivals. Numerical simulations verify that the proposed MAC protocol outperforms the other three existing MAC protocols, namely, IEEE 802.15.4 MAC, SSMA and LELLMAC, in terms of energy consumption, throughput and packet delay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the rapidly evolving landscape of Internet of Things (IoT), Zigbee networks have emerged as a critical component for enabling wireless communication in a variety of applications. Despite their widespread adoption, Zigbee networks face significant security challenges, particularly in key management and network resilience against cyber attacks like distributed denial of service (DDoS). Traditional key rotation strategies often fall short in dynamically adapting to the ever-changing network conditions, leading to vulnerabilities in network security and efficiency. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a novel approach by implementing a reinforcement learning (RL) model for adaptive key rotation in Zigbee networks. We developed and tested this model against traditional periodic, anomaly detection-based, heuristic-based, and static key rotation methods in a simulated Zigbee network environment. Our comprehensive evaluation over a 30-day period focused on key performance metrics such as network efficiency, response to DDoS attacks, network resilience under various simulated attacks, latency, and packet loss in fluctuating traffic conditions. The results indicate that the RL model significantly outperforms traditional methods, demonstrating improved network efficiency, higher intrusion detection rates, faster response times, and superior resource management. The study underscores the potential of using artificial intelligence (AI)-driven, adaptive strategies for enhancing network security in IoT environments, paving the way for more robust and intelligent Zigbee network security solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, microwave filtering technologies have known great advancement and wide employment in wireless communication systems, necessitating the development of miniaturization techniques to respect the size limitation in wireless communication devices and reduce the cost, in order to satisfy the consumer and be more competitive. Accordingly, the design of a microwave filter is chosen based on its electrical performance, size, and manufacturing price. Therefore, it is necessary to make a good compromise between the mentioned criteria to satisfy the industrial requirements. This paper proposes a small and inexpensive bandpass filter (BPF), where the proposed structure is carefully constructed over a low-price FR4 Epoxy substrate with a full dimension of (17.6 × 9 × 1.6) mm3. The proposed filter offers good electrical performance in terms of reflection coefficient (S11), insertion loss (S21), Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), and selectivity. A filter prototype is fabricated and tested to affirm the simulation results. Consequently, the measured results show a good agreement with the simulation, proving the suitability of the proposed filter for different wireless applications, including WLAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee, RFID, and ISM bands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid development of IoT technologies leads to their wide use in various spheres of life such as healthcare, agriculture, automotive, etc. IoT devices generate a large amount of data, which, if accessed without authorization, can lead to problems for both organizations and individuals. Therefore, security in IoT networks is a critical aspect. Due to the limited computing resources and memory of IoT devices, cryptographic algorithms are often used for their efficiency. One of the widely used cryptographic algorithms in IoT is the symmetric AES algorithm. It is the main encryption algorithm in ZigBee IoT networks. This paper presents the realization of a simulation environment that enables the investigation of the secure connection process of end nodes in a ZigBee wireless IoT network. The developed environment makes it possible to simulate the process of the secure connection of an end device in a ZigBee network. The simulation makes it possible to trace the process of obtaining an encrypted network key from the trust center based on ZigBee specifications. It is also possible to simulate the process of denying access of an end device to the network. The simulation environment implements network key encryption using the install code or a well-known key defined by the ZigBee Alliance. The encryption functionality in the simulator is realized through the implementation of the AES cryptographic algorithm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban traffic congestion has become an increasingly serious problem, and the transportation industry is gradually becoming a high-energy-consuming industry. Intelligent Transportation System (ITSs) that integrate technologies such as electronic sensing, data transmission, and intelligent control have emerged as a new approach to fundamentally solving transportation problems. As one of the cores of intelligent transportation systems, multi-vehicle formation technology has the advantage of promoting vehicle information interaction, improving vehicle mobility, and enhancing traffic conditions. Due to the high cost and risk of conducting multi-vehicle formation experiments using real vehicles, experimenting with intelligent vehicles has become a viable option. Based on the leader–follower formation strategy, this study designed an intelligent vehicle formation system using the Arduino platform. It utilizes infrared sensors, ultrasonic sensors, and photoelectric encoders to perceive information about the vehicle fleet and the road. Information is aggregated to the master vehicle through ZigBee communication modules. The controller of the master vehicle applies a PID algorithm, combined with a differential steering model, to solve the speed instructions for each vehicle in the fleet. Motion control instructions are then transmitted to each slave vehicle through ZigBee communication modules, enabling the automatic adjustment of the fleet's traveling speed and spacing. Additionally, a Bluetooth app has been designed for users to monitor and control the movement status of the fleet dynamically in real time. Experimental verification has shown that this research effectively improves intelligent fleets' capabilities in environmental perception, intelligent decision-making, collaborative control, and motion execution. It also enhances road traffic efficiency and safety, providing new ideas and methods for the development of autonomous driving technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research paper conducts a thorough comparison of four prominent transmission technologies suitable for mobile robots operating in challenging environments. Emphasizing key factors such as signal strength, noise resistance, and data transfer efficiency, the study aims to identify the optimal communication solution in hostile conditions. The exploration delves into the intricacies of received signal strength indication (RSSI) and signal-tonoise ratio (SNR), revealing distinctive traits and trade-offs among the technologies. Navigating through the complexities of frequency bands, modulation types, and communication topologies, the paper examines the impact of obstacles, energy consumption dynamics, and potential real-world applications. Beyond contributing to the fields of robotics and communication, the study offers practical insights for stakeholders seeking resilient and efficient transmission methods for mobile robotic applications. Advocating for long range (LoRa) as the preferred transmission technology in hostile environments, the paper highlights its unmatched immunity to noise, stability, and minimal energy consumption. These findings provide valuable guidance for technology choices in collaborative mobile robot operations under challenging conditions. This research sets the stage for future developments in robotic communication, underscoring the crucial role of selecting the right transmission means for mission-critical applications in hostile environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Przegląd Elektrotechniczny is the property of Przeglad Elektrotechniczny and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Indoor distance measurement technology utilizing Zigbee's Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI) offers cost-effective and energy-efficient advantages, making it widely adopted for indoor distance measurement applications. However, challenges such as multipath effects, signal attenuation, and signal blockage often degrade the accuracy of distance measurements. Addressing these issues, this study proposes a combined filtering approach integrating Kalman filtering, Dixon's Q-test, Gaussian filtering, and mean filtering. Initially, the method evaluates Zigbee's transmission power, channel, and other parameters, analyzing their impact on RSSI values. Subsequently, it fits a signal propagation loss model based on actual measured data to understand the filtering algorithm's effect on distance measurement error. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method effectively improves the conversion relationship between RSSI and distance. The average distance measurement error, approximately 0.46 m, substantially outperforms errors derived from raw RSSI data. Consequently, this method offers enhanced distance measurement accuracy, making it particularly suitable for indoor positioning applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a monitoring, control, and management system that allows the interoperability of multiple smart gateways in a greenhouse to bolster automatic decision making on water supplied to the crops in real-time. The system consists of several sensor nodes interconnected by Zigbee to measure ambient and soil parameters to control the greenhouse irrigation process. In addition, a web service is included to help the system manager to visualize and operate the greenhouse on a web platform. The system also supports human decision making to cope with undesirable and unexpected environmental events. Smart gateways enable data reading, storage and edge computing using automatic rules to manage actions in the greenhouse, as well as data transmission for centralized processing in cloud services. The service communication system layer is supported by choreography middleware for messaging distribution, which enables agile scalability. This research proposes a hybrid scheme and compares to a centralized scheme. The latency times in the choreography system were analyzed to find a suitable solution adapted to infrastructure deployment features. Numerical results shows that such an adaptive deployment of the irrigation services among edge and fog layers can reduce the computational load on the gateways, improve system response times, and enhance device performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to meet the requirements of urban construction and further urbanization of the country, the author proposes an industrial 5.1 air quality monitoring system to develop smart city infrastructure. The author utilizes a wireless network of lighting nodes to solve the cost and positioning accuracy issues of perception nodes covering a large area, achieving real-time alarm of urban air quality status and location of pollution occurrence. The author also adopted the latest design concept of monitoring systems combined with cloud platform interfaces, breaking the closed design of traditional IoT systems and enabling better utilization of air quality data. The test results indicate that: The communication distance of CC2530 can be maintained at around 70m under normal power, while the spacing between urban street lights is approximately 30m, which fully meets the project requirements. After two days of testing, the system alarm function and various functions are running normally. Conclusion: The key parts of the system have been tested and simulated, and ideal results have been obtained.

Introduction/purpose: Direct sequence spread spectrum modulation is widely used in many radiocommunications systems. At the first time, this modulation technique was used in military communications and navigation systems. Later, applications became diverse in civil communication systems as well. Today, there are many systems where direct sequence spread spectrum modulation is implemented as a part of the system. This article aims to sublimate knowledge about the direct sequence spread spectrum modulation technique and its applications. Methods: The article presents a review of the historical development of the direct sequence spread spectrum modulation technique, its principles and the most important current applications. Results: Based on a large number of references, this article summarizes the historical development, basic principles and modern applications of the direct sequence spread spectrum modulation in military and commercial communication systems. Conclusion: Direct sequence spread spectrum modulation is widely used in modern wireless and satellite radiocommunications. It is expected to be part of future global communication systems.

This study endeavored to enhance the efficiency and utility of microcomputer meters. In the past, their role was predominantly confined to remote meter reading, entailing high construction and communication transmission costs, coupled with subsequent maintenance and operational expenditures. These factors collectively impacted the enthusiasm of various stakeholders to invest in this realm. Hence, in alignment with the smart city development initiative, the natural gas industry has pioneered the establishment of an advanced metering infrastructure with heterogeneous wireless sensor networks (HWSNs) at its core. This visionary leap incorporates global machine-to-machine connectivity (G-M2MC) technology, interconnecting all facets of its operations, thereby positioning itself as a trailblazer within the industry. While advancing this endeavor, the project's scheduling aligns with the enterprise's sustainability goals in the early stages of digital transformation. This strategic allocation of resources is responsive to government policies and aspires to cultivate a digitally connected smart green energy hub, thereby expediting the transformation of the living environment. The objective is to provide a stable, secure, cost-effective, and reliable system that can be shared among peers. Furthermore, this study delved into the analysis of congestion avoidance in intelligent Zigbee satellite transport networks based on the HWSNs-GM2MC of non-synchronous satellite orbit system (NGSO) pivotal technologies, utilizing them to integrate the smart LNGas management system (SGMS). Concurrently, it developed application services through the smart meter application interface (SMAPI), distinct from conventional microcomputer meters. However, it is imperative to acknowledge that cloud computing, while processing sensitive data, grapples with issues of latency, privacy, efficiency, power consumption, and zero-trust security risk information management and ethical authority management capabilities in the defense of disaster relief responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wireless sensor network (WSN) can be used in many applications, especially electrical distribution systems (EDS). The power transmitted on the distribution line has a huge impact by environmental changes like temperature, humidity etc., leading to problems like voltage sag, voltage swell, and changes in the power frequency. These effects affect the devices that are driven by power, for large scale industries, the impact is so heavy. To monitor the imbalance in the transmitting power, the sensor nodes are used to monitor the PQ issues. Then the monitored information needs to be transmitted to the monitoring centre; in this flow, communication plays an important role in minimising the cost of the WSN. For monitoring the PQ, first, the sensor nodes are deployed in the appropriate area. Deploying the sensor node anywhere on the sensor node is impossible. Therefore, the node in this article is used on the feed circuit, which is mounted on the insulator for protection from the power supply. Then the bald eagle search (BES) optimisation based ZigBee communication protocol (ZBES) is designed to transmit the retrieved data from the sensor node to the monitoring station. The designed protocol will make the cost efficient and energy saving path to transmit data to the edge node. The performance of the proposed routing protocol is compared with the ZigBee and other routing protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction/purpose: Direct sequence spread spectrum modulation is widely used in many radiocommunications systems. At the first time, this modulation technique was used in military communications and navigation systems. Later, applications became diverse in civil communication systems as well. Today, there are many systems where direct sequence spread spectrum modulation is implemented as a part of the system. This article aims to sublimate knowledge about the direct sequence spread spectrum modulation technique and its applications. Methods: The article presents a review of the historical development of the direct sequence spread spectrum modulation technique, its principles and the most important current applications. Results: Based on a large number of references, this article summarizes the historical development, basic principles and modern applications of the direct sequence spread spectrum modulation in military and commercial communication systems. Conclusion: Direct sequence spread spectrum modulation is widely used in modern wireless and satellite radiocommunications. It is expected to be part of future global communication systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Xinjiang Agricultural Sciences is the property of Xinjiang Agricultural Sciences Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Przegląd Elektrotechniczny is the property of Przeglad Elektrotechniczny and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Short-range Internet of Things (IoT) sensor nodes operating at 2.4 GHz must provide ubiquitous wireless sensor networks (WSNs) with energy-efficient, wide-range output power (POUT). They must also be fully integrated on a single chip for wireless body area networks (WBANs) and wireless personal area networks (WPANs) using low-power Bluetooth (BLE) and Zigbee standards. The proposed fully integrated transmitter (TX) utilizes a digitally controllable current-mode class-D (CMCD) power amplifier (PA) with a second harmonic distortion (HD2) suppression to reduce VCO pulling in an integrated system while meeting harmonic limit regulations. The CMCD PA is divided into 7-bit slices that can be reconfigured between differential and single-ended topologies. Duty cycle distortion compensation is performed for HD2 suppression, and an HD2 rejection filter and a modified C-L-C low-pass filter (LPF) reduce HD2 further. Implemented in a 28 nm CMOS process, the TX achieves a wide POUT range of from 12.1 to −31 dBm and provides a maximum efficiency of 39.8% while consuming 41.1 mW at 12.1 dBm POUT. The calibrated HD2 level is −82.2 dBc at 9.93 dBm POUT, resulting in a transmitter figure of merit (TX_FoM) of −97.52 dB. Higher-order harmonic levels remain below −41.2 dBm even at 12.1 dBm POUT, meeting regulatory requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Internet-of-Things (IoT) concept predicts a future of interconnected formation using one or more radio automation due to the high proliferation of sensors. Multiradio mesh deployments made possible by a network of inexpensive IoT platforms, like ASUS Tinker Board S, Banana Pi M64, Raspberry Pis (RPis), etc., seem to be an ordinal fit for such deployments' wireless backbones because many of these platforms come with built-in support for various wireless technologies. To fit the capabilities of low power multiradio solutions, especially when making best effort broadcasts, the cutting-edge routing techniques must be reconsidered. This is because most currently available routing systems prioritise channel diversity while routing, omitting any potential costs related to protocol conversions. Therefore, we covered the effect of protocol conversion in IoT in this study. The three wireless technologies Wi-Fi, Zigbee, and Bluetooth have been examined. For rapid, short-distance communication, Bluetooth technology excels. Zigbee, on the other hand, offers somewhat faster, lower-power communication across longer distances. Therefore, depending on the situation, IOT devices could use Bluetooth or Zigbee. Relay agents that offer protocol conversion can connect to Bluetooth and Zigbee IOT devices using Wi-Fi technology, which operates on IP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]