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The presence of mycotoxins in food and feed represents one of the major safety concerns today, comparable in significance and worldwide prevalence to antimicrobial resistance. Recently, there has been increased attention to the interconnectedness of these two issues, with growing acknowledgment and reduced skepticism regarding such connections. Firstly, both mycotoxins and certain antibiotics are produced by fungi, blurring the distinction between them, as many mycotoxins possess antibacterial properties. Beyond their shared origin, they also exhibit similarities in other characteristics (biosynthesis, structures, genetic composition, and roles within the producing organism's life cycle). Moreover, induction of similar resistance mechanisms in bacteria, supports the notion that antimicrobial resistance caused by mycotoxins is plausible. The inevitable presence of mycotoxins in animal feed, often in trace amounts, mimics the exposure of commensal bacteria in domestic animals to low-level antibiotic growth promoters. Chronic sub-dosing of antibiotics in animals is a recognized contributor to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in humans. Another connection between mycotoxins and antibiotics regarding antimicrobial resistance is that bacteria resistant to mycotoxins could transfer resistant genes to other bacteria through horizontal gene transfer. Equally significant is the detrimental impact of both mycotoxins and antibiotics on animal gut microbiota, leading to dysbiosis. Clinically, misdiagnosing mycotoxicosis—diseases caused by mycotoxins that are not treatable with antibiotics—can result in inappropriate and unwarranted antibiotic therapy, exacerbating antimicrobial resistance. Failure to recognize mycotoxins as the primary cause of clinical or production issues in livestock often leads to misguided treatment approaches. Considering these points, it is imperative to conduct further research on mycotoxin-induced antibiotic resistance (MABR), particularly

So far the Salmonella Choleraesuis is not marked as a predominant serovar. In the Serbia, the most common pig S. enterica serovars are: Typhimurium, Derby, Infantis, and Enteritidis. This report discourse the first report finding of S. Choleraesuis in Serbia. The problem arose at single site continuous-flow farm inhabited with 1300 sows with farrow to finish orientation. The farm reported weaned pigs mortality in up to 5%. During previous period, the farm experienced porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and mycotoxicosis, Salmonella outbreak haven’t been recorded on farm earlier. In the last 2 years, the farm imported about 200 gilts and 7 boars from different EU countries and traded pigs with other swine farms within Serbia.

Galleria mellonella, the greater wax moth or honeycomb moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. G. mellonella is found throughout the world. Males are able to generate ultrasonic sound pulses, which, along with pheromones, are used in mating. G.mellonella do not attack the bees directly, but feed on the shed exoskeletons of bee larvae and pollen that is found in dark brood comb, which was used by the bees to hold the developing bees. The destruction of the comb will spill or contaminate stored honey and may kill bee larvae. G. mellonella larvae parasitize the honeybee. Eggs are laid in the cracks and crevices inside the hive, which minimizes egg detection . Once eggs hatch, they feed on the midrib of the wax comb, the cast skins of bee larvae, pollen, and small quantities of propolis and honey. Larvae that hatch tunnel through the honeycombs that contain honeybee larva and their honey stores. The tunnels they create are lined with silk, which entangles and starves emerging bees, a phenomenon known as galleriasis. Tunnels also result in massive destruction of the combs. As a result, honey is wasted as it leaks out when cell caps are eaten. Finally, both G. mellonella adults and larvae can be vectors for pathogens that can infect honeybees, including the Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) and the black queen cell virus (BQCV). During research conducted in apiaries in Serbia, the presence of greater wax moth was established in approximately 2.3% of apiaries. The damage caused by it did not cause the death of colonies, but caused great economic losses in the production of bee products. They also weakened colonies so that in 40% of infected apiaries we found infections with BQCV in addition to greater wax moth.

Achroia grisella is a small wax moth of the snout moth family (Pyralidae). Their spread was worldvide except in areas with cold climates. Females deposit their eggs in crevices in or near bee hives so that a food source will be close to the emerging larvae. Because lesser wax moths eat unoccupied honey bee combs, they are considered pests to bees and beekeepers. Feeding occurs only during the larval life stage. Larvae feed on weak bee colonies. Larvae move through the bee comb and spin silk tunnels. They cover the silk with their frass. Tunneling through honeycombs not only provides food, but also protects the larvae from the defending worker bees. The larvae prefer to eat honey bee larvae, pupae, and pollen, but will also feed on honey. A disorder called bald brood occurs in hives infested by lesser wax moths. When feeding on the comb, larvae tunnel under capped cells containing honey bee pupae. This movement causes the caps to become defective. The worker bees will then remove the defective caps. The name bald brood refers to the remaining uncapped cells that reveal the residing pupa. During research conducted in apiaries in Serbia, the presence of small wax moth was established in approximately 1.57% of apiaries. The damage caused by it did not cause the death of colonies, but caused economic losses in the production of bee products. Although they are present in a small percentage, it is necessary to control the small wax moth.

The spread area of Belgrade has extremely favorable conditions for modern agricultural production (climate, agricultural land, watercourses, developed processing industry). This economic branch is of strategic importance for supplying Belgrade with food products, along with the resources that abound in the wider environment (Vojvodina and Šumadija). There are numerous villages here, where households keep cattle in small herds or mini-farm, usually in semi-intensive breeding. During our study performed on 2018 we examined faeces of 190 cattle from 42 herds and 29 cattle by post-mortem examination. Determination of eggs and adult parasites performed on their morphological characteristics. The coprological examination established the presence of gastrointestinal helminth eggs in 39.6% of samples. The majority of cattle were infected with two and fewer number with three or four parasite species. At postmortem examination of cattle we found Haemonchus contortus we occured in 57,53%, Ostertagia ostertagi in 55,63%, Trichonstrongylus axeis in 49.37%, Cooperia oncophora in 32.57%, Ostertagia trifurcata in 29.79%, Oesophagostomum radiatum 21.22%, Toxocara vitulorum17.52%, Dicocelium dendriticum 15.26%, Paramphistomum ichikawai in 14.21%, Strongyloides papillosus 11.51%,Moniezia benedeni in 9.47% and Trichuris discolor in 6.52%.

Large strongyles are considered one of the most pathogenic parasites that can affect equines. Horses can be affected by three primary species of large strongyles, namely: Strongylus vulgaris, S. edentatus and S.equinus. S. vulgaris, also known as the bloodworm, is the most significant and detrimental large strongyle. The life cycle is direct. Eggs are passed in the faeces and the first-stage larva that hatches from each egg moults twice to the third, infective stage. Infection of horses is by ingestion of these larvae. Once ingested, S. vulgaris larvae penetrate the mucosal lining of the horse’s gastrointestinal tract, typically in the cecum or colon. They molt into fourth stage larvae (L4) in the submucosa, migrating into the small arteries. Subsequently, these larvae migrate into the cranial mesenteric artery and its branches, which are responsible for delivering oxygenated blood and nutrients to the intestines. In rare cases, the larvae can enter other vessels and spread throughout the horse’s body. Several months later, these larvae molt into fifth stage larvae (L5) and return to the gut wall where nodules form around the larvae. These nodules rupture releasing young adult parasites into the intestinal lumen. During examinations of the domestic mountain horse which are autochthonous breed, kept in a semi-free system the highest prevalence has infection with Strongylus edentatus we established at 41.53% horses. During our research, despite the high prevalence, the intensity of infections was low, so we had no recorded clinical cases of the disease.

Introduction: Neonatal enteropathies of piglets were recognized as a serious problem of the modern pig industry. Today it is known that it is a multicausal disease caused by numerous agents of bacterial, viral and parasitic etiology (Jacobson, 2022) The aim of our work is to point out the importance of parasitic infections in this disease. Materials and Methods: In period 2017-2020 a total of 337 pigs, 2-21 weeks old, were exanimate. After routine necropsy, parasitological, bacteriological and viral evaluations were performed, as required to establish the cause of disease in each pig. To parasitological examination we used faecal swab, gut contents and a mucous scrape of gut which we examined with Sheathers sugar flotation and in direct smears stained with Gimsa strain. Results: During our examination Eimeria sp. were detected at two week old piglet at 4.22%, Ispsora suis at 2-4 week old piglet at 12,34% and cryptosporidial organisms were detected in the microvillus brush border in the intestine of the pigs ranged from 7-12 weeks old at 61,36%. Based on the time of onset of neonatal enteropathies, Cryptosporidium sp. was confirmed as the main parasitic agent of its occurrence. These results are similar to our previous research (Pavlovic et al., 2007) Conclusion: The role of infection with criptosporidia in the occurrence of neonatal enteropathies in piglets, because of the multiple agents, which cause this disease, has not been fully explained, but our examination indicated that cryptosporidia might act, either in itself or in concert with other agents to induce or exacerbate clinical disease.

The method of breeding, which has been established in breeding of small ruminants for centuries, is acquired through conditions that affect parasitic infections. From these reasoni in mind, we started with examination of parasitic fauna of sheep and goat at warious pats of Serbia. In our paper we presented results of examination performed ın hılly and mountainous part of Serbia. In the relief of this part of Serbia we a series of surfaces stands out, above which rise low island mountains and wide valleys cut into the surface. Geographical and climatic conditions make this region rich in pastures suitable for breeding small ruminants. They are usually kept in small herds by rural households and spend most of the year grazing. During our research performed in period 2017-2019, total of 769 fecal samples originated from 71 sheep and goats flocks were collected individual at monthly intervals. A total of 67 animals we were analyzed by post-mortem examination. Determination of parasites eggs we performed by morphology characteristic We occured same parasite species: Teladorsagia (Ostertagia) circumcincta, Ostertagia trifurcata, O.ostertagi, O.occidentalis, Nematodirus filicoliis, N.spathiger, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, T.axei, T.vitrinus, Haemonchus contortus, Marshallagia marshalli, Cooperia curticei, C.punctata, C.oncophora, Skrjabinema ovis, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Oesophagostomum venulosum and Chabertia ovina. Poliparasitismus and infection were established at all examined animals. The intensity of infection and polyparasitsm was monitored in relation to the age of sheep and goats. It was found that in younger animals intensity of infection was lower than that of older animals. The infective rate of each of these parasites showed that the most of its followed the same general pattern, having a peak in the spring and another in the autumn, separate by a trough during the hot dry summer period when the infection rate was low.

The grazing method of breeding enables small ruminants to have constant contact with transitional hosts (oribatids, molluscs, etc.) and eggs and larval forms of parasites, so that there is no sheep that is not infected with at least one parasitic species. Based on research in the world and in our country, diseases of parasitic etiology dominate in sheep and goats both in terms of prevalence and incidence, accompanied by significant morbidity and moderate mortality.There are many factors that contribute to the appearance, maintenance and spread of parasitosis. Among the many factors that influence the spread and maintenance of parasitic infections, there is a major influence of environmental factors on the seasonal dynamics of gastrointestinal strongylids of small ruminants. For these reasons, the aim of our work is to review the influence of abiotic factors on the epidemiology of parasitic infections of small ruminants.

Infection with coccidia is one of the most common and damaging sheep diseases, particularly young lambs and economically important diseases of sheep. Coccidiosis is caused by parasitic protozoa in the genus Eimeria. Coccidial infection is virtually universal in sheep and large numbers of oocysts may be found in the faeces of clinically normal animals. Usually it is presented at animals at 4-10 weeks.Lamb and kids infection had moderate morbidity and low mortality rate. Environmental contamination and resulting clinical disease is generally influenced by local weather conditions and the grazing management practices of the flock. In our paper, we present measures to control coccidiosis in sheep kept in frame breeding conditions.

The family Meloidae (Insecta, Coleoptera), commonly referred to as "blister beetles", pose a significant health and economic problem. Adult Meloidae are destructive phytophagous pests of a wide variety of flowers and agricultural crops. The life cycles of parasites often involve complex behavioral and morphological adaptations in order to find a host. The larval forms known as triangular larvae, are very mobile and extremely aggressive with strong upper jaws, long tentacles and three claws on each leg. Hidden in plants, they quickly climb bees that land on plants in search of food. They hide on the bee's body, they can even crawl between the segments on the abdomen. The larvae can secrete pheromones that are similar to queen bee pheromones that attract drones. By mating with queens or directly through drones, these larvae are introduced into the hive. In bee communities, these larvae first devour pollen and then move on to eggs and bee larvae. When they devastate a bee colony, they use bees as a means of transportation to the next hive or apiary. Also, there is an open danger that in the localities of some apiaries, where conditions are suitable for these insects, they will settle permanently and achieve their full reproductive cycle. In recent years, the presence of Meloidae larvae has become a major health problem for beekeepers in Romania, and during 2021, they were established in Serbia. Therefore, it is necessary to control beehives for their presence and take measures to eradicate Meloide.

Senotainia is a genus of satellite flies in the family Sarcophagidae. S. tricuspis are widespread from Middle East, West Balkan and Palaearctric area in Europe. The larvae and maggots of S. tricuspis are kleptoparasites and facultative internal parasitoids of adult honeybees and bumblebees. Adult prefer sandy areas, but often present at flowers and in bee-gardens. Senoteniasis is a miasma that occurs in worker bees during the summer. It has been noticed that S.tricuspis climbs on the roofs of the hive already in the morning and stays on them during the day as long as there is sunlight. The fly attacks the bees from the hive when they take off, when it bends the back of the body and lays the larva between the bee's head and thorax. It rarely occurs in drones, which is explained by their low activity and in the queen because she leaves the hive only at the time of mating and at the time of swarming. They feed on the hemolymph of the bee, which soon dies. The larvae of the third stage are 1 cm long, whitish in color, with pronounced segments on the body. They feed on the pectoral muscles and soft tissues of the abdomen. Before they transform into a puppet, the larvae can turn into another dead bee and eat its tissues. The mature larva leaves the beetles, crawls on the surface of the soil, and then crawls into the ground, where after 7 to 14 days it transforms into an adult fly. Identification is by morphological characteristics of the findings of larvae in the thorax of the dead bee. They are most often found in the south of Serbia at the beginning of May to August, which depends on the climatic conditions. These are most often sporadic cases of infestation.

One among many reasons for global bees-decline phenomenon is the influence of many viruses on honeybees’ health. Viral diseases comprise a very large and least known area of bee pathology. One of the most common viral infections of bees in Serbia is Sacbrood virus. In the northern and southern parts of the country prevalence was from 54.5% to 83.6%. On the other hand, in the central, northern and western areas it ranges from 3.3% to 14.3%. The virus mostly affects worker larvae, but can also infect adult honey bees. SBV causes an uneven brood pattern with discolored, sunken or perforated cappings scattered throughout the brood. Larvae are thought to be infected by consuming brood food contaminated with SBV. The virus multiplies within the infected larvae causing it to display unusual behavior (such as sitting in cells with their head up).The infected larvae die shortly after capping before they pupate. The larvae then changes color from a white to a yellow and then brown. The skin of the larvae hardens and fills with a fluid which gives the impression of the larvae becoming a fluid-filled sac. The fluid contains viral particles, which allows the virus to spread and infect other bees. Over time the larvae dries out becoming a brown to black colored, brittle, scale that adheres loosely to the cell. The scales contain viral particles, providing another mechanism for spreading the virus. Infected adult bees do not show any obvious symptoms. However the hypopharyngeal glands (these are the glands that produce royal jelly/brood food) of nurse bees become infected. It is thought that infected nurse bees may spread the virus to larvae while feeding them brood food. Adult bees that have been infected with the virus tend not to feed larvae for long.

The bee louse Braula coeca is a highly specialised flattened, wingless fly with extensive global distribution. Female Braula can oviposit many places in the hive (empty cells, brood cappings, debris on the floor) but only eggs oviposited on honey cappings will hatch. Braula flies take between 10 and 21 days to develop from eggs to adults. Upon emergence from their eggs, Braula larvae construct a tunnel under the cell cappings. This visible tunnel is the most noticeable hive damage attributed to Braula. Although some consider this damage, it is only aesthetic damage and of minor economic importance. It is believed that Braula larvae feed on honey and pollen residues encountered while tunneling under the cell cappings. Braula adults often are found on the heads of honey bee workers, drones, and especially queens. It feeds by stealing food directly from bees during social feeding (trophallaxis). While on the head of its host bee, Braula will feed on food from the mouth of its host as the host is fed by another bee or is feeding another bee. There is some evidence that adult Braula can induce regurgitation from bees by stroking the upper edge of a bee's labrum until the bee extends its tongue. Braulae are reddish-brown in color and are often misdiagnosed as varroa mites due to their similar appearance. Notable difference useful as a field diagnosis to distinguish between varroa mites (mites) and Braula (insects) is that Braula, have six legs and has a rounded appearance while adult varroa mites have eight legs and are more compressed and oval. Based on our research in apiaries in Serbia, Braula is represented in a small percentage and does not represent a significant health problem of bee colonies.

Septicemia are an infectious disease of bee colonies, which occurs under adverse conditions of detention, is accompanied by the death of adult bees. Diseasee is caused by Bacterium apisepticus – polymorphic, gram-negative, small, mobile, spore-forming bacteria. The bacterium is widely distributed in nature.. Bees become infected via their tracheal system. Conditions for of disease include swarming and building honeycomb. It affects drones and worker bees. Usually strikes in May and wears down in October. The development of septicemia is promoted by high humidity: rainy summer, the penetration of precipitation into the nests of bees, the setting of an apiary in low, shaded and waterlogged places, liquid, unsealed food in the winter and a wet winter hut. The forms of the disease can be pronounced, well expressed, under which there is a strong weakening of families, and hidden, when there is a slight death of bees. The major symptoms are a change in the colour of the haemolymph of adult bees from apple brown to chalky white and a rapid degenerationof muscles. As a consequence of the destruction of the connective tissues of the thorax, legs, wings and antennae, bees fall apartwhen handled. Affected bees in colonies appear restless,do not feed and appear to be unable to fly.Dead or dying bees also have a putrid odour The disease itself can last from one to a few days (8-15). The bee mortality rate can vary depending on weather conditions - the weather conditions can lower or even sometimes remove the disease, especially if hygiene measures are implemented and from 10 to 90% of infected bees.

Monieziais is a global parasite disease of ruminants. It is caused by Moniezia expans and Moniezia benedini. As all tapeworms, Moniezia spp has an indirect life cycle with ruminants as final hosts, and oribatid mites (also called "moss mites" and "beetle mites") as intermediate hosts. The oribatid mites ingest the eggs, which hatch in their gut and develop to cysticercoids in the body cavity of the mites. They are infective for the final hosts. These thugs inhabit the small intestine of the host and clinical presentation is most common in young animals. There are disorders of profuse diarrhea, intestinal convulsions and obstruction, bloated abdomen, cachexia and death. Research on the prevalence of monieziais in ruminants has not been done in Serbia for more than fifty years. In our work, we presented the results of a preliminary examination of the prevalence of monieziais in certain regions of Serbia in large and small ruminants in the last ten years. Moniezia benedeni is a common tapeworm of cattle in Serbia and depending on the region, the prevalence is 3 to 5%. Moniezia expansa is more frequent in sheep and goats and occured in 11 to 23% of examined animals. Diagnosis is based on fecal examination for the presence of gravid segments (proglottids) or of eggs with a characteristic morphology. In the treatment of the disease, the most commonly used preparations are bezamidazole, niclosamide, and combination of praziquantel and levamisole.

During last decades on Belgrade area were increased. semi-intensive breeding of sheep in village at spread Belgrade area. The rational use of pastures in the period of April-October makes the sheep production sustainable and low input in this period of the year. The specific climate and the unique habitat includes high biodiversity of flora and fauna of the grasslands. Ticks represents one of the indispensable elements of that specific biotope. For this reason tick infestations are common, especially during late spring and autumn months of the year. Examinations of sheep tick fauna from the Belgrade area are periodically carried out in order to monitor the influence of abiotic and climatic factors on their biodiversity. The last research was done in 2013 and in our paper we present the results of research conducted in the period 2019-2020 years. During our examination we examined 53 heards of sheep originated from 23 villages from city districts Mladenovac, Lazarevac, Obrenovac, Grocka, Zemun, Surčin, Palilula, Vozdovac and Zvezdara. İn total we examined 447 animals. The tick species and sex/gender were identified by morphometric characteristics. The main attribute of identification of tick family is a plain dorsal sclerotised scutum or shield, which is often ornate with patterns in white or gold against a brown or grey background and which distinguishes these ticks from other families. This sclerotised plate covers the entire dorsal surface of the male, but only one third of the female's dorsal surface. Second one was the capitulum of hard ticks which just as the mouthparts and is visible from a dorsal view. The peritreme or groove is big and clearly visibly around the stigmal plate. Grooves are deep, linear depressions in the body cuticle, usually on the ventral surface. Hard ticks can be easily differentiated by the shape of the basis capitulum and by the form of anal grooves. Ticks infestation we occured at 51.46% sheep. The most abudant species was İxodes ricin