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Background Cognitive screening is important for the oldest-old (age 90 +). This age group is the fastest growing and has the highest risk of dementia. However, norms and score equivalence for screening tests are lacking for this group. Aims To provide norms and score equivalence for commonly used cognitive screening tests for the oldest-old. Methods Data on 157 participants of the Center for Healthy Aging Longevity Study aged 90 + were analyzed. First, we derived norms for (1) subtests and cognitive domains of the in-person Montreal Cognitive Assessment having a maximum score of 30 (MoCA-30) and (2) the total MoCA-22 score, obtained from the in-person MoCA-30 by summing the subtests that do not require visual input to a maximum score of 22. These norms were derived from 124 participants with a Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) ≥ 27. Second, we derived score equivalences for MMSE to MoCA-30 and MoCA-22, and MoCA-30 to MoCA-22 using equipercentile equating method with log-linear smoothing, based on all 157 participants. Results MoCA-22 total score norms are: mean = 18.3(standard deviation = 2.2). An MMSE score of 27 is equivalent to a MoCA-30 score of 22 and a MoCA-22 score of 16. Discussion and conclusions Subtest, domain and MoCA-22 norms will aid in evaluation of the oldest-old who cannot complete the MoCA-30 or are tested over the phone. The equivalences of the three cognitive tests (MMSE, MoCA-30, MoCA-22) in the oldest-old will facilitate continuity of cognitive tracking of individuals tested with different tests over time and comparison of the studies that use different cognitive tests.

A measure of time attitudes, Culture of Time Inventory—33 items (COTI-33), was developed and validated in English and Russian on 560 American and 517 Russian respondents. The study aim was to examine and assess culturally relevant time attitudes that may affect performances on timed psychological and neuropsychological tests. A stable and comparable five-factor model emerged across samples, revealing the following dimensions of time attitudes: (1) planning; (2) punctuality; (3) time management; (4) event-time orientation; and (5) time-limited tests. Cultural differences emerged in COTI-33 factor scores where Americans rated planning and punctuality significantly higher than Russians. Discriminant validity of the scale was examined against the Big Five Personality Inventory. COTI-33 was established to have high reliability and construct validity and may serve as a valuable instrument for assessing the influence of time attitudes on timed psychological test performances in both clinical and non-clinical settings.

Cognitive resilience provides insights into maintaining good cognition despite dementia-related neuropathologic changes. It is of special interest in the oldest-old (age 90+) because age is the strongest risk factor for dementia. We describe the only participant of The 90+ Study, among 367 autopsies, who maintained normal cognition despite intermediate-high levels of 3 dementia-related neuropathologic changes, advanced age, and comorbidities associated with cognitive impairment. This man remained cognitively normal throughout 13 semi-annual study visits, last one being 4 months before his death at 96. His cognitive test scores remained around the 90th percentile for non-timed tests and declined from 90th to 50th percentile (significant for semantic fluency) for timed tests. He remained physically and cognitively active until death, despite extrapyramidal signs in the last year of life. Neuropathological examination revealed intermediate level of Alzheimer's disease neuropathologic change (Thal phase 5, Braak NFT stage IV, CERAD score 3), Lewy bodies and neurites in the olfactory bulb, brainstem and limbic areas (Braak PD stage 4), TDP-43 inclusions in the amygdala and hippocampus (LATE stage 2), and a microvascular lesion in putamen. This case demonstrates that cognitive impairment is not inevitable even in the oldest-old with mutltiple dementia-related neuropathologic changes.

Despite the growing interest in studying factors affecting subjective well-being of older adults, little research has been conducted on vast territory of Siberia (Russia) with large population. To address this lack of evidence, we explored the relationship between subjective well-being and social aspects (social and emotional support, social network, and social activities), living conditions (standards of living and residence area), self-reported health, and demographic characteristics in older adults living in Tomsk Region, Siberia. Subjective well-being was measured by life satisfaction and happiness (each measured with one 11-point question). Sample included 489 community-dwelling respondents, aged 65 or older. We found that mean life satisfaction and happiness reported by our respondents were lower than those of European countries. Higher quality of social interaction, better standards of living, and being satisfied with own health were associated with higher life satisfaction and happiness. This study provides original data on a region barely investigated and suggests that Siberian older adults receive strong benefits from social support and from social network and that similar factors are related to subjective well-being both in Siberian and Eastern European older adults. Future studies should further explore the relationship between different kinds of social support (e.g., psychological vs. material support) and subjective well-being in different Siberian ethnic groups or regions.

Objectives: Individuals aged 90 or older (oldest-old), the fastest growing segment of the population, are at increased risk of developing cognitive impairment compared with younger old. Neuropsychological evaluation of the oldest-old is important yet challenging in part because of the scarcity of test norms for this group. We provide neuropsychological test norms for cognitively intact oldest-old. Methods: Test norms were derived from 403 cognitively intact participants of The 90+ Study, an ongoing study of aging and dementia in the oldest-old. Cognitive status of intact oldest-old was determined at baseline using cross-sectional approach. Individuals with cognitive impairment no dementia or dementia (according to DSM-IV criteria) were excluded. Participants ranged in age from 90 to 102 years (mean=94). The neuropsychological battery included 11 tests (Mini-Mental Status Examination, Modified Mini-Mental State Examination, Boston Naming Test – Short Form, Letter Fluency Test, Animal Fluency Test, California Verbal Learning Test-II Short Form, Trail Making Tests A/B/C, Digit Span Forward and Backwards Test, Clock Drawing Test, CERAD Construction Subtests), and the Geriatric Depression Scale. Results: Data show significantly lower scores with increasing age on most tests. Education level, sex, and symptoms of depression were associated with performance on several tests after accounting for age. Conclusions: Provided test norms will help to distinguish cognitively intact oldest-old from those with cognitive impairment. (JINS, 2019, 25, 530–545)

The oldest-old, those 90 years and older, are the fastest growing segment of the population and the number of dementia cases at these ages will steadily increase over time. It is therefore critical to include this population in clinical research. Evidence to guide recruitment of this group is scarce. We report our experience recruiting the oldest-old to a longitudinal study of aging and dementia. Recruitment activities were grouped into four strategies: direct mailing of recruitment brochures, community outreach, earned media, and referrals. Recruitment sources were recorded based on enrollees’ self-report. Cost was estimated based on personnel time and materials. One hundred forty five new participants were enrolled over 40 months. Community outreach produced the most recruitment (33.8%) followed by earned media (21.4%), direct mail (16.6%) and referrals (15.8%). Earned media and direct mailing were most cost-effective. Local media produced more enrollment and was more cost-effective than national media.

Increase in population migration worldwide and greater availability of health-related services has resulted in higher frequency of psychological services for individuals of diverse backgrounds. Unfortunately, this shift has not been matched with parallel psychological knowledge, especially in application to testing. To improve fairness in testing, evaluation of individuals that are not part of a majority culture should take into account both universal and culturally unique psychological characteristics, including cultural relevance of testing process and assessed constructs, culture-appropriate test norms, acculturation and language proficiency, socioeconomic status, and quality of education. Future research should address development of culture-relevant tests and norms, evaluation of ecological validity of currently used tests, cultural significance of factors not yet studied, and education of psychologists on cross-cultural issues in assessment.

This chapter considers major milestones in the history of Russian neuropsychology by describing the main principles of Lurian neuropsychology and their applications in the study of memory and language disorders. The chapter describes Lurian typology of aphasias and explains the influence of Lurian neuropsychological principles on the further development of neuropsychology in Russia. This chapter discusses the work of Luria and Vygotsky as an integrative whole. The development of their neuropsychological theories is discussed from a handful of fundamental precepts, as well as their principal manifestations and practical applications. After a historical summary of their lives and works, the chapter introduces their theory of higher cognitive functions (HCFs) and presents its two most fundamental postulates. The chapter examines the diagnostic method known as syndrome analysis and shows its application to the aphasias and amnesias. Lastly, it describes how these principles and practices were applied to neurorehabilitation and cognitive remediation.

Understanding regional differences in cognitive performance is important for interpretation of data from large multinational clinical trials.Data from Durham and Cabarrus Counties in North Carolina, USA and Tomsk, Russia (n = 2972) were evaluated. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Trail Making Test Part B (Trails B), Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease Word List Memory Test (WLM) delayed recall, and self-report Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Studies Mail-In Cognitive Function Screening Instrument (MCFSI) were administered at each site. Multilevel modeling measured the variance explained by site and predictors of cognitive performance.Site differences accounted for 11% of the variation in the MoCA, 1.6% in Trails B, 1.7% in WLM, and 0.8% in MCFSI scores. Prior memory testing was significantly associated with WLM. Diabetes and stroke were significantly associated with Trails B and MCFSI.Sources of variation include cultural differences, health conditions, and exposure to test stimuli. Findings highlight the importance of local norms to interpret test performance.