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The use of gametophyte factors to protect specialty-type maize has long been advocated, but as of yet, they have made very little impact on preventing pollen contamination due to the complications associated with breeding with these materials, mainly the additive nature of the alleles. A dominant gametophyte factor (DGF) overcomes this problem, allowing for less time consuming production of gametophytic hybrids, but effectively utilized sources do not exist. Tcb1-s, a known DGF, is a teosinte introgression into maize and the leading candidate for utilization, however, it has several issues that limit its effective use in expediting the breeding process for gametophytic hybrids. The use of maize for a source of DGFs may overcome this problem; with the idea years of selection by farmers would likely have minimized any segregation for yield associated with these alleles, making their use for production of gametophytic hybrids an appealing option for modern breeders. Through screening and backcrossing selected maize accessions, we identified DGFs in seven accessions from race Maiz Dulce, which we document here as a starting point for identification of additional maize-derived DGFs. These accessions did not appear to segregate for yield, a marked improvement over existing DGFs. Additionally, we assessed the compatibility of identified maize-derived DGFs from one accession, and showed that, while lines are generally compatible, they are not obligately so since a single accession may segregate for multiple gametophyte factors. There is, therefore, a need to consider the compatibility of pairs of DGFs early in the inbreeding process. Maize-derived DGFs provide a more effective method of producing gametophytic hybrids, making their production economical enough to be brought to market. The use of DGFs has wider potential to benefit any producers interested in preventing pollen contamination with gametophytic hybrids through the same benefits provided to breeders for organic and other specialty systems. In combination with Ga1-m resistance, maize-derived DGFs provide a long-term gametophytic solution to pollen contamination, in a more expeditious way.

Due to maize’s wind-driven pollination, non-target pollen contamination is problematic for producers and breeders. Maize gametophyte factors, specifically gametophyte factor 1 (ga1), have long been used to produce selectively pollinating phenotypes. The use of these factors is a cornerstone of commercial popcorn production, and they are used for a large range of other purposes, including preventing contamination by genetically modified pollen in organic production. However this system is at great risk from another allele at the ga1 locus, Ga1-m, which overcomes the selectively pollinating phenotypes. To further complicate this problem, the risk posed by this allele has been under-assessed. Here we reinterpret the key study on Ga1-s and report genetic resistance to the Ga1-m allele in maize lines that carry dominant gametophyte factors. We identified genetic resistance to the allele segregating in lines derived from four landraces, showed the resistance is heritable, and that it acts in full-strength and attenuated versions. Additionally, we have suggested the validity of evolutionary-based inquiry into our plant genetic resources, and provided some validation of this effort. Our results provide the first report of effective genetic resistance to pollination by the Ga1-m allele, providing an option to continue the use of genetic barriers to non-target pollination. A source of resistance to the Ga1-m allele allows research to be conducted about the allele itself, allowing for research into the possible existence of multiple versions of the allele and their distributions. We anticipate our research will be a starting point for identification of additional sources of resistance to the Ga1-m allele, specifically in popcorn production, where it is most immediately needed to prevent pollen contamination, as well as the eventual localization and mapping of the resistance alleles. We also believe the suggestion of evolutionary-based inquiry into plant genetic resources will provide a highly effective method for identification of specific traits, but will need more extensive validation.