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In response to an agrarian crisis, small-scale farmers in South India are experimenting with the application of agricultural ferments to their degraded soils. This article focuses on the Nectar of Life, a fermented preparation made by practitioners of Zero Budget Natural Farming out of the urine and dung of native cows. Based on ethnography in Wayanad, Kerala, and textual analysis of statements by Subhash Palekar, the inventor of the ferment, I unpack its recipe ingredient by ingredient and show that fermenting the Nectar of Life enacts a microbial ontology of agriculture. Through fermentation, natural farmers rethink soil care as a fundamentally relational activity that requires humans, cows, plants, and microorganisms to work together for mutual benefit. However, fermentation and natural farming are also implicated in what I call bionativism, a nativism focused on biological belonging. The native cow as the cornerstone species of probiotic fermentation makes microbial thinking compatible with nativist politics and tropes of the Hindu Right. I analyze the ambivalences of combining probiotic perspectives on more-than-human health with a rejection of alien species. I show how fermentation practices produce not only living soils but also nativist objects such as native cows, native earthworms, and native soils as well as their foreign enemies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ancient farming methods with yogic techniques are reported as the zero budget sustainable method for cultivation, seed germination, plant growth, and harvesting. It increases the crop yield resulting in enhanced production and improved soil fertility. The Brahma Kumaris' Raja Yoga Meditation (BKRYM) technique revived by Raja Yoga Education and Research Foundation (headquartered at Mount Abu, Rajasthan, India) is scientifically proven not only for an enhanced quality of farm produce but also for the well-being of farmers who practice this meditation. An initiative was taken in the Indian Finance Budget (July 2019) to propose and introduce Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF), which promotes sustainable yogic agriculture. Scientific Research of India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), and Union Agricultural Ministry are also promoting this concept of yogic farming, but the farmers and researchers are not much aware of this holistic concept, which needs to be acknowledged and adapted to the specific social-cultural settings. BKRYM based yogic agriculture is a unique method of farming which helps in the sustainable development of the agroecosystem. This paper is aimed to explore the various studies, which shows that yogic-farming technique (BKRYM + Organic farming) is much efficient and superior to standard organic farming and chemical-based farming in terms of enhancing seed germination, soil health, plant growth, nutritional values, profitability along with farmers' well being and reducing plant diseases, fungal and slug attacks and germination time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the light of the growing concerns about the sustainability of the current input-intensive agriculture system, the need for an alternative farming system has arisen. Among the various alternative farming models practised across the world, Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) has recently come into the spotlight. This paper envisages the economic viability of ZBNF in a local setting. In the empirical survey, the study considers one cluster of farmers practicing ZBNF in Purulia district of West Bengal, India. Empirical evidence presented in this paper is based on the performance of this alternative model of farming in respect of three important parameters, namely cost of cultivation, yield and income. Evidence reveals that the natural farmers have experienced a reduction in per hectare production cost and per hectare yield for their crops in the post-conversion period. More importantly, farmers adopting the ZBNF model (i.e. treatment group) in Purulia were able to enhance their income, compared to their chemical counterparts (i.e. control group). Moreover, an in-depth analysis of performance has been carried out, thereby identifying the factors influencing the long-term sustainability of ZBNF. Results indicate that the long term sustainability of this model of farming is contingent upon the interplay of agro-climatic conditions and various other socio-economic factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the potential virtues of dual budgeting processes coexisting within a single budgeting information system for organizations experiencing changing environments. The treatment of discretionary cost activity in the traditional budgeting process is discussed and a comparison of the effectiveness of the techniques of zero-based budgeting and traditional budgeting is presented. Using both approaches simultaneously is said to hold potential for combining the best of both methods, but the cost-effectiveness of such a dual budgeting process is noted as a limiting factor.

Substantial attention has recently been focused on the reported failures of zero-base budgeting (ZBB), management by objectives (MBO), and planning, programming, and budgeting (PPB) as management techniques for corporations as well as governmental agencies. This writer has determined that these failures occur because the ZBB, MBO, and PPB techniques are used in lieu of an integrated planning/marketing process and fail to recognize the process or the limitations and scope of these techniques. The techniques can and do work well where they are treated as part of, rather than as a substitute for, the planning/marketing process, and are modified to function efficiently within the process. All elements of the planning/marketing process must be given a fair share of attention if the profit or non-profit enterprise is to succeed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An attempt is made to integrate the zero based budgeting (ZBB) procedure into the firm's planning process. Previous studies have failed to provide an integrative framework for the application of ZBB which may account for some of the conflicting results obtained in previous ZBB programmes. Next, the results of an empirical assessment of the effectiveness of the ZBB integrative framework in service oriented organizational units are reported. Strong support is evident for the ZBB planning framework developed here using constituency oriented indicators of effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PPB (Planning, Programming and Budgeting), MBO (Management by Objectives), and ZBB (Zero-Base Budgeting) have each been implemented in the U.S. federal government, ostensibly as means for facilitating planning and control in agencies and programmes. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the use of these techniques as management tools, political strategies, and ritualistic symbols using concepts discussed in the organizational theory, planning and control, and policy science literatures. Two basic conclusions emerge from the evaluation. First, PPB, MBO, and ZBB may inappropriately encourage the use of an analytical, computational decision strategy, and a cost/benefit method of performance assessment at a level within the organization and in environmental settings which calls for an inspirational decision strategy and social test performance assessment. As a result, environmental variety may not be matched by an organizational response which is equally variable. Secondly, PPB, MBO, and ZBB may have been used more as political strategies and ritualistic symbols for controlling and directing controversy by both the executive and legislative branches of the U.S. federal government and less as management tools for improving decision making within the U.S. federal bureaucracy. These management tools give the appearance of rationality in the formulation of public policy which is consistent with man's need for confidence building and conflict avoidance in running the affairs of state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zero-base budgeting (ZBB) has been adopted in a variety of industrial and government settings, and is currently being implemented in the federal government as a means for managing agencies and programs. In this paper, we evaluate ZBB as a management technique and as a political strategy employed in the federal government, using concepts developed in organization theory, planning and control, and political science. We conclude that ZBB combines a number of planning and control attributes, any of which can dominate, according to the environment in which ZBB is implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When the Department of Agriculture shunted aside traditional methods of budgeting and attempted a comprehensive and simultaneous evaluation of all departmental programs, the authors conducted interviews in order to determine what the results would reveal about the controversy surrounding incremental versus comprehensive modes of decision making. They discovered that a zero-base budget—calling for the relative evaluation of each major item in the budget as compared to every other, and explicitly rejecting reliance on a historical base—could be described but could not be practiced. Comprehensive, zero-base budgeting vastly overestimates man's limited ability to calculate and grossly underestimates the importance of political and technological constraints. The required calculations could not be made and would not have led to substantial changes. As a result, a great deal of effort went into zero-base budgeting with few specific changes attributable to this costly method. Nevertheless, there appeared to be psychic benefits which led some of the participants to approve of zero-base budgeting. The authors found a Hawthorne effect in that participation in the experiment enhanced the importance of some men engaged in budgeting. Officials in the bureau felt good at being able to educate their departmental superiors. Top department officials were happy to show their expertise to bureau officials. And many officials were pleased that the new and apparently more rational mode of decision making seemingly confirmed the rightfulness of their existing policies. This line of reasoning helps explain why many officials were certain that the zero-base budget had helped people at other levels in the hierarchy, even if they were reasonably certain that they had not been helped at all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Have you ever looked at your income statement and felt that over time, despite all your efforts, your operational results continue a downward trend? Several drivers might be behind this--but it might be a good idea to consider your costs and expenses, since there is a significant chance they are what is affecting your results. If that is the case, a Zero-Based Budgeting (ZBB) approach could be a good method to boost your results and help you regain some of your lost profitability. ZBB is a budgeting technique in which expenses must be redefined for each new cycle instead of using the previous period as a reference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zero-base budgeting reentered the Georgia budgetary process in 2012 after a hiatus of approximately three decades. This article describes the events leading up to the reentry of ZBB, compares the new version of ZBB with the original version implemented during the administration of Governor Jimmy Carter in the 1970s, and assesses the likely impact of this latest budget reform for Georgia and other state governments. Even though the nomenclature, 'ZBB,' used to describe the current Georgia budget process is the same as that used to describe the state's budget process during the Carter administration, operationally the Carter-era and new ZBB are not the same. The Carter-era ZBB had a unique and clearly defined terminology and set of procedures, whereas the new ZBB relies mostly on existing performance-budget procedures. The Carter-era ZBB purported to build the budget up from a zero base. The new ZBB is about drilling down into the base or continuation budget. The Carter-era ZBB was a managerial process intended to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. The new ZBB is more ideologically conservative with the aim of cutting the budget and shrinking state government. Claimed budget reductions may be significant at the micro-level, but they probably are not at the macro-level. However, it may not matter what cost reductions are actually realized. The symbolic effect of the ZBB process is what is most important, confirming the fiscal conservative bona fides of state government leaders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A zero-base budget requires managers to justify all of their budgeted expenditures, rather than the more common approach of only requiring justification for incremental changes to the budget or the actual results from the preceding year. Thus, a manager is theoretically assumed to have an expenditure base line of zero (hence the name of the budgeting method). In reality, a manager is assumed to have a minimum amount of funding for basic departmental operations, above which additional funding must be justified. The intent of the process is to continually refocus funding on key business objectives, and terminate or scale back any activities no longer related to those objectives. Zero-Based Budgeting is a broad-reaching cost transformation effort that takes a "blank sheet of paper" approach to resource planning. It differs from traditional budgeting processes by examining all expenses for each new period, not just incremental expenditures in obvious areas. Zero-Based Budgeting forces managers to scrutinize all spending and requires justifying every expense item that should be kept. It allows companies to radically redesign their cost structures and boost competitiveness. Zero-Based Budgeting analyzes which activities should be performed at what levels and frequency and examines how they could be better performed-potentially through streamlining, standardization, Outsourcing, off shoring or automation. The process is helpful for aligning resource allocations with strategic goals, although it can be time-consuming and difficult to quantify the returns on some expenditure, such as basic research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The paper describes and evaluates the success of a zero-based collection development approach to print serials in a community teaching hospital. Methods: The authors first assessed the environmental factors that would determine future needs of the medical library and its customers. Liaisons to various departments and constituencies were substantially involved in the data-gathering phase. Using newly defined collection parameters, a list of journals to consider was compiled and each journal was categorized justifying its inclusion. Any title not having a strong fit in at least one category was eliminated from further consideration. Results: Overall, 21 subscriptions were cancelled and 34 were added. Despite a 15% increase in total subscription costs, mostly due to normal annual journal price increases, the average cost per journal went down from $344 to $327. Journal usage went up over 30%, interlibrary loan lending went down 25%, and borrowing went up 20%. Conclusion: As resources available to libraries decline, it becomes critical that collections and services are continually and systematically reviewed with a view to keeping them aligned with the mission of the organization, needs of the customers, and emerging trends. Zero-based collection development can be a valuable tool in bringing a print journal collection into closer alignment with the needs of library customers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the literature contains a number of suggestions for dealing with problems caused by a preponderance of zero expenditure observations that frequently occur in micro level budget studies, in general, these suggestions seem to be either empirically intractable or theoretically unappealing. In this paper it is argued that a natural theoretical specification can be motivated by duality theory and that the statistical technique of compositional data analysis provides a corresponding complementary stochastic specification. The resulting model is a consistent theoretical and stochastic specification for handling the possibility of a zero demand over a range of expenditures and/or prices. The model is then applied to the 1988/89 Australian Household Expenditure Survey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article compares Best Value, the performance measurement framework presently being introduced in local government in the UK, with Planning and Programming Budgeting Systems (PPBS) and Zero Base Budgeting (ZBB). PPBS and ZBB are resource allocation techniques which became popular in the 1960s and 1970s, but later declined in popularity. It appears that there is much of PPBS and ZBB in the Best Value framework. There may be a lot to learn from the past, and many issues to be addressed, if Best Value is not to suffer the same fate as PPBS and ZBB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For various forms of assistance the authors are indebted to Phil Cobbin, Jane Hronsky, Christine Jubb, Denis Pratt, Tom Rowles, Ken Wright and participants in seminar series at the universities of Melbourne and Manchester. We owe a particular debt to Wayland Young (second Baron Kennel) for permitting access to the Kennel papers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is mainly based on articles in international professional journals forming the author's dissertation paper entitled ‘Informatics and Systems Science Applications for Analysis and Structural Improvement of a Municipal Organization’. The article may be seen as an attempt to relate certain concepts of LST (living systems theory) to the activities of a municipal organization mainly represented by the capital of Sweden. This article deals partly with concepts of indicators of fulfilment of an activity's desired outcome according to its main purpose and the difference between these concepts with consideration of a municipal organization. However, a most important part of the article is devoted to giving an example of the implementation of the critical subsystems in a restructuring and planning process where zero-base budgeting together with breakthrough thinking have vital roles to play. Thus, through a coupling of the principles of the critical subsystems to the principles of zero-base budgeting and using breakthrough thinking it could be possible to achieve an effective investigation of a municipal organization and its problems. The article also deals with certain paradigmic influences in society which also can influence a municipality. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The traditional literature on agency models predicts that, for zero liability contracts, it is optimal for the principal to pay for the information he cannot observe. However, this principle is not valid for a set of contracts mostly used by government agencies whose distinguishing feature is represented by a stringent budget constraint for the principal. This paper shows that in this environment the principal will either choose a structure exibiting pooling or a bargaining solution. The bargaining solution represents the analytical proof to the intuition of the difficulty in implementing procurement contracts stated by Laffont and Tirole (1993). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the spread of administrative innovation through state and local governments. Link between the search to innovate and the search for uncertainty; Metaphor of magic; Adoption of procedures such as benefit-cost analysis and zero-base budgeting; Functions of innovations.

Discusses how Alcan Aluminum Corp. achieves synergy through management techniques. Parts of an 'Integrated Communications System for Managing'; Job description; 'Organalysis,' responsibilities of a person's job in relation to those with whom he interfaces; Management by objectives; Zero-based budgeting; Short- and long-term planning.

Focuses no the use of zero-base budgeting as a business management approach for managers to assess their operations from the ground up. Justification of expenditures in terms of overall corporate goals; Benefits of performance and consequences of nonperformance; Need for managers to evaluate alternative types.

Part I. Discusses the three major corporate formal planning problems facing companies in the U.S. Benefits of corporate planning; Lack of planning focus; Lack of action or decision orientation; Poor integration with other management system; Steps of zero-based budgeting.

The article focuses on the significant changes in Planning, Programming and Budgeting System (PPBS) so as to manage defense strength in the United States more efficiently and economically. PPBS is the complex and long term process whereby mission needs are identified, matched with resource requirements, reviewed, and many translated into budget proposals. It is the key management mechanism by which the secretary can exercise his statutory control over, and make trade-offs among, the capabilities of the military departments and the defense agencies that constitute his vast domain. The evolution of the defense budget process is characterized by a tension between centralization and decentralization. It has become increasingly clear that over the years the accretion of differing objectives and management styles had created serious distortions in the total system. The management style and circumstances which led to this particular system have changed markedly over the intervening years. There were two major problems in the programming and budgeting phases of the PPBS, the residual confusion of roles of the line and staff functions in Office of the Secretary of Defense, and the failure of "zero base budgeting."

This article focuses on zero-based budgeting (ZBB). Ten years ago a staff control manager at Texas Instruments published an article in the "Harvard Business Review," describing the use of a new systematic and formalized method of budgeting in that company. Budgets were to be formulated at the ground level by an organization's managers, and not merely by its budget staff. Alternative methods of performance and alternative levels of activity for various cost centers within the organization were to be examined. Perhaps the most striking feature of ZBB over the past decade is the retreat in a great many instances from what ZBB was supposed to be all about: namely, the conducting of zero-base reviews of programs. ZBB did not change the nature of budgeting from an incremental mode to a rational-comprehensive one. Research on local and state governments' ZBB results gives further evidence of the clear trend toward the non-zero base clement in ZBB. At the state and local levels, ZBB has not been dramatically linked with any governor or mayor as the federal link between U.S. President Jimmy Carter and ZBB. This is probably a good thing for the future of ZBB because it removes a fundamental political connotation from the equation.

This research investigates municipal experience with zero-base budgeting (ZBB) in 35 cities. The chief executive was the primary force behind the adoption of ZBB, but the city councils seemed more involved in the process than have the legislative bodies in non-municipal jurisdictions which have used ZBB. The biggest problem in the ZBB process was the time and paperwork demands. But despite this problem and others, the respondents believed that ZBB was able to reduce some agency budgets and control the rate of increase in others. Also, it encouraged greater line management participation in budget preparations and was useful in educating top city officials about the operations of municipal departments. The respondents wanted to continue ZBB in their cities, but many desired major modifications in the process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

City managers often face the need to hire consultants. There are many ways to proceed on this, two of which are detailed in this article. The experience of the city with using a consultant to assist with implementing a ZBB system focuses on the importance of flexibility in dealing with a consultant and emphasizes the role of monitoring as a management tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

No recent initiative for improving executive management generated more debate among active participants than Presidential Management Initiatives (PMI). Launched by U.S. President Gerald R. Ford on July 23, 1976 and subsequently incorporated into the Office of Management and Budget's (OMB) budget preparation instructions to major spending federal departments and agencies in November 1976, PMI was terminated by the Carter Administration less than six weeks after taking office. This seven month experiment marked the shortest half-life of any major presidential management reform in recent memory. Few officials outside of the Washington community even heard of PMI. The usually attentive press missed both its beginning and passing. In the annals of government management, Presidential Management Initiatives may well be relegated to a footnote. However, this experiment deserves far more than an abbreviated obituary not as gauged by results, limited as they were, but for what it sought to accomplish.

The article focuses on zero-base budgeting (ZBB). There are three major elements of zero-base budgeting: decision unit determination, decision package formulation, and ranking. Decision unit determination is the process for building the budget formulation structure. Decision package formulation is the mechanism used to compile and package the budget request. Ranking is the process through which managers are asked to array their priorities by choosing among all the decision packages presented to them. Under ZBB, ranking as a process for setting organizational priorities generally has two major facets-a mechanistic process and a policy framework. Due to the nature of zero-base budgeting practices, a relatively large number of discrete budgetary increments are formulated. The implications of the ZBB approach are that: First, each manager in the organization charged with budget formulation responsibilities will be preparing and submitting his or her budget in the form of incremental decision packages, which may number as few as two or as many as perhaps ten; second, a relatively large number of decisions will need to be made by higher level managers about which decision packages will be funded and which will not be approved; and third, an orderly process for applying organizational priorities to the budget review and resource allocation decision-making arena is required.

In this article the author focuses on the success of zero-base budgeting (ZBB) in the U.S. The fiscal 1979 budget projects an expenditure growth of $40 billion, all but $8 billion of which is due to mandatory inflation and workload increases. The fiscal 1979 budget comes out just about where disembodied incrementalism would tend to. The budget is properly restrained in its claims for ZBB. By one vital measure, ZBB was a remarkable success. The new system was speedily installed throughout the federal bureaucracy. Even more astounding, ZBB was much more than an ancillary submission, merely supplementing the standard budget documents which continued to receive the lion's share of attention. The core budget estimates submitted by most federal agencies conformed to the ZBB guidelines. ZBB was introduced quickly and painlessly because it did not alter either "the rules of evidence" for budgeting or the structure for budget choices. Agency after agency accommodated ZBB to its existing budgetary framework. If an agency had a program budget, it selected programs as decision units, if its budget still was oriented to organizational lines, these became its ZBB categories.

The purpose of this article is to describe the current "state-of-the-art" in local budgeting methods, and to briefly speculate on future developments. There are, certainly, many hazards in such an undertaking. Each one of the thousands of local governments in the United States is unique, and its budgeting methods and overall management style reflect that individuality. In addition, numerous terms and abbreviations have been coined, such as zero-base budgeting (ZBB), planning-programming-budgeting systems, and measure of effectiveness, to describe budgeting approaches and techniques, in some cases serving to confuse rather than clarify. The author first, briefly review previously proposed budgeting systems and then suggest some reasons why these systems are not in use today. In recent years, two types of budgeting methods have evolved, ZBB and target budgeting. Both respond to difficult economic constraints by requiring re-examination of current service levels. In additional, they accommodate the use of performance and program analysis techniques where available and usable.

Presents several letters to the editor. Remarks on the article "City Managers, Public Avoidance, and Revenue Sharing," by Timothy A. Almy; Discussion on the poor image of the government in eyes of the public; Comments on economist Peter A. Pyhrr's zero-base budgeting.

The zero-base budgeting (ZBB) system was introduced by U.S. President Jimmy Carter as soon as he was elected in all Federal departments, bureaus, and boards. Probably no two users of zero-base budgeting apply this management tool in exactly the same way. Zero-base budgeting, federal style, is to be a management process that provides for systematic consideration of all agency programs and activities in conjunction with the formulation of FY 1979 budget requests. It will be central to the federal budget process and will provide the basis for agency justification of budget requests. The U.S. Office of Management and Budget's (OMB) overriding concern has been one of simplifying the zero-base process by developing broad, flexible guidelines within an overall framework. A mutual concern which links OMB to federal agencies is avoiding a paperwork explosion, both within the agency and in what is eventually sent to OMB. The essential concept OMB has tried selling and, indeed, the key to ZBB's full utilization, is that this management tool requires the active participation of managers at all levels in the planning, budgeting, and evaluation processes. Zero-base budgeting is revolutionary by most any standards of efforts aimed at systematic changes in the ways government conducts its business.

This article on the zero-base approach to budgeting is presented as a first-person account by one deeply involved in the development of this approach, with the thought that the "several levels" addressed therein will prove interesting and informative, at a time when zero-base budgeting will presumably be moving toward center stage. As the deadline for publication approached and arrived Mr. Pyhrr was abroad, so that it was impossible to check all editorial matters with him. I hope nevertheless that the presentation faithfully sets forth the essentials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses changing faces of accountability in British local government. The tension between managerialism and financial control in local government is not a new one. In the late 1960's and early 1970's the notion of corporate management spread through the British local government system like wildfire, particularly in the wake of the Bains and Paterson reports which made recommendations about the organization and management of local government after the reorganization of the early 1970's. Different approaches to budget making were espoused at the same time, as an alternative to forms of incrementalism and financial measures. The notion of corporate rationality was presented as the new orthodoxy. By the start of the 1980's, however, it was clear that this was more wishful thinking than a description or analysis of the actual practice of budgeting. In the 1980's financial control could be seen as the main forth of corporate rationality, even if it was rarely the result of any wider political ambitions or more detailed survey of the activities of councils. Even accounting measures such as Programme Planning Budgeting Systems and Zero-Based Budgeting tend to be discussed only for the point to be made that they are not being used extensively by any authorities, not least because of the expense they are likely to involve.

Analyzes zero-base budgeting. Shortcomings of traditional budgeting; Steps of zero-base budgeting; Benefits of zero-base budgeting.

The authors' purpose in this paper is to develop productivity-based sequential budgeting procedures designed to expedite identification of major problem areas in budgetary performance, as well as to reduce the costs associated with comprehensive zero-base analyses. The concept of total factor productivity is reviewed and its relations to ordinary and zero-based budgeting are discussed in detail. An outline for a selective sequential analysis based on monitoring of three key indicators of (a) implicitly budgeted total factor productivity; (b) revenue growth; and (c) profitability; is suggested. It is argued that this approach is instrumental in promoting a more systematic performance analysis, which is capable of revealing hidden efficiency shortfalls and is potentially cost and time saving. Additionally, this type of productivity-based budgeting is shown (via use of an actual application) to provide all the informational inputs for a full-fledged analysis of expected budgetary distribution of productivity gains among various categories of employees, shareholders and customers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]