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Objective: This study assessed the use of a topical anesthetic as a feasible approach to reduce pain during piglet castration using a minimal anesthesia protocol., Animals: 18 male piglets, aged 3-6 days, were included in this study., Methods: A minimal anesthetic state was induced with isoflurane administered by facemask, with anesthetic depth individually adjusted based on responses to interdigital pinch. To desensitize the scrotal skin, a vapocoolant was applied 3 times. Scrotal incisions were made subsequently and Tri-Solfen (TS) or Placebo (P) was administered in both incisional gaps. After 30 seconds, the spermatic cords were severed followed by a further application of TS/P to both incision edges. Nociception-related variables, such as mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), and nocifensive movements, were assessed., Results: Significant differences in MAP changes were assessed between the TS (14 ± 4 mmHg) and the P group (36 ± 8 mmHg) for cutting the spermatic cords. Furthermore, significantly fewer nocifensive movement score points appeared in the TS than in the P group (0; IQR = 0 vs 5; IQR = 6)., Clinical Relevance: In this anesthesia model, the application of TS after skin incision significantly reduced MAP responses and nocifensive movements with spermatic cord transection compared with the application of P. However, the waiting period between TS-application and spermatic cord transection might limit the benefit of the method in conscious piglets, as pain during castration is reduced but additional stress is caused by the prolonged handling. Furthermore, using a vapocoolant did not provide anesthesia for skin incisions.

Surgical castration of piglets is generally recognized as a painful procedure, but there is currently no gold standard for the assessment of pain behavior in piglets. However, pain assessment is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of local anesthetics. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of four local anesthetics in terms of pain relief during and after surgical castration in three sequential study parts. To do so, we filmed 178 piglets before the applied procedures, after injection of the local anesthetic, and up to 24 h after castration (five observation times in total) in an observation arena and compared their behavior before and after castration and between treatments and control groups. The results showed significant differences in the behavior of the piglets before and after castration and between the sham-castrated control group and the control group castrated without anesthesia. The different local anesthesia treatment groups showed diverging differences to the control groups. The most frequently shown pain-associated behaviors of the piglets were changes in tail position and hunched back posture. We observed a reduction but no complete elimination of the expressed pain-associated behaviors after local anesthesia. Several behavioral changes-such as changes in tail position, hunched back posture or tail wagging-persisted until the day after castration. Owing to the limited duration of the effects of the local anesthetics, local anesthesia did not influence long-term pain.

The objective of this study was to investigate the electroencephalographic reaction pattern and FOS protein expression in male piglets undergoing surgical castration under light isoflurane anaesthesia with or without local anaesthesia. The experiment was conducted under isoflurane anaesthesia to exclude the effect of the affective components of pain on the measurements. Changes in the oscillatory activity of the cerebral cortex over a 90 s period after noxious stimulation or simulated interventions were analysed. FOS expression was determined postmortem by performing immunohistochemistry in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The analysis of the response to an interdigital pinch revealed a biphasic reaction pattern in the electroencephalogram (EEG) that similarly was observed for the surgical stimuli during the castration procedure in the group without analgesia. This EEG response was attenuated or altered by the application of local anaesthetics. Immunohistochemical staining for FOS indicated a lower expression in the handling and in three local anaesthetic groups than in the animals castrated without pain relief. The findings indicate that EEG and FOS expression may serve as indicators for nociception in piglets under light isoflurane anaesthesia. A lower activation of nociceptive pathways occurs during castration after the application of local anaesthetics. However, EEG and FOS analyses should be combined with additional parameters to assess nociception, e.g., haemodynamic monitoring.

Background: Since 01.01.2021, suckling piglets may no longer be castrated without anaesthesia in Germany. Previous studies showed castration using isoflurane anaesthesia in combination with a suitable analgesic, meet the requirements of the German Animal Welfare Act. It can be carried out independently by farmers and other qualified persons with an automated and certified isoflurane device. Therefore, the aim of the present field study was to implement the use of three different anaesthetic devices for surgical castration of male piglets under automated isoflurane anaesthesia on 15 conventional pig farms in southern Germany. In addition, the depth of anaesthesia based on defensive movements, the labour time required in contrast to anaesthetic-free castration, castration-related anaesthetic incidents and the piglet mortality rate as well as occupational safety were investigated. For this purpose, farrowing batches of 11,574 piglets castrated under isoflurane anaesthesia (IA) were compared with the results of the 1568 piglets of anaesthetic-free farrowing batches (AF)., Results: In total, 80.1% of the castrated piglets showed sufficient depth of anaesthesia, although this varied significantly between devices. 1.7% of the piglets suffered an anaesthetic incident, of which 0.1% died during or within 24 h after anaesthesia. The required time for the complete working process differed significantly between AF (1.7 ± 0.8 min/piglet) and IA batches (2.2 ± 0.8 min/piglet) but not for castration itself. The mean isoflurane consumption was 0.57 ± 0.27 ml/piglet and differed significantly between the devices (p < 0.001). The isoflurane concentration in the ambient air of the person-related workplace safety measurements was below the internationally lowest value of 15 mg/m 3 from Ontario and Israel., Conclusion: In conclusion, 2 of the 3 types of devices used, a sufficient depth of anaesthesia during castration under isoflurane was achieved in 85% of castrated piglets. Anaesthetic incidents occurred in 1.7% of the animals, of which 0.1% died. Castration under isoflurane is more time-consuming than anaesthetic-free castration, but the castration time itself did not differ significantly. The occupational exposure limits were below the internationally lowest limit value of 15 mg/m 3 for the persons involved. Even though castration under isoflurane is more time consuming than anaesthetic-free castration, it is a well-establishable method for practice and a dear improvement for animal welfare., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

The present study evaluated the effects of two injection techniques in combination with lidocaine or mepivacaine for piglets undergoing castration. To improve ease of use, a cannula with side holes (one-step fenestrated (F)) was invented to simultaneously deliver a local anesthetic into the testis and scrotum and was compared to a two-step injection technique. The distribution of a lidocaine/contrast agent mixture using the two methods was examined using computed tomography. Piglets were randomly divided into treatment groups: handling, castration without pain relief and castration after lidocaine or mepivacaine injection using the one-step F or two-step method. Acute physiological responses to noxious stimuli were evaluated by measuring the mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR) and nocifensive movements. Fos protein expression in the spinal dorsal cord was semi-quantitatively analyzed. Both injection techniques achieved similar distribution patterns. The one-step F method was faster and easier. Injection was not associated with significant changes in MAP or HR, but Mepi1 and NaCl elicited significantly increased nocifensive movements. Both techniques significantly reduced MAP and nocifensive movements when the spermatic cords were cut, regardless of the local anesthetic type. Compared to NaCl, only the lidocaine treatments significantly reduced HR during skin incision. Lido2 significantly reduced Fos protein expression.

In a fattening farm in southern Germany, paralysis of the hind limbs was observed in 2 age groups (50 kg as well as 60 kg) during a 4 week period. Despite a low morbidity of 3.3 % the majority of the affected animals needed to be euthanized in consequence to the progression of their hind limb paralysis. During pathomorphological examinations of 2 affected fattening pigs severe lymphohistiocytic meningoencephalomyelitis and vasculitis were detected. Immunhistochemistry revealed the presence of Porcine Teschovirus antigen in all parts of the central nervous system as well as in several cell types (neurons, glia cells, endothelial cells, mononuclear cells). Porcine Teschovirus was detected by PCR in spinal cord samples. The subsequently performed phylogenetic analysis PCR revealed a close relation (88 % full genome sequence) to porcine Teschovirus A11 strain "Dresden". Other swine relevant pathogens were excluded by PCR, bacteriologic examination and sequencing. Following a period of 4 weeks no additional cases of hind limb paralysis were observed in the fattening farm., Competing Interests: Die Autoren bestätigen, dass kein Interessenskonflikt in wirtschaftlicher oder persönlicher Hinsicht bezüglich der vorliegenden Arbeit besteht., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Investigation of defensive reactions, piglet losses, post-bleeding and recovery time of suckling piglets castrated under automated isoflurane anesthesia as well as measurements of isoflurane concentrations in ambient air and estimation of the cleaning and disinfection success of anesthesia masks., Material and Methods: A total of 955 suckling piglets (age: 4.0 ± 1.2 days; weight: 2.0 ± 0.5 kg) were castrated under automated isoflurane anesthesia (PorcAnest 3000 ® ) after the administration of a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Reactions during the procedure were assessed before castration using the interdigital claw reflex and during castration by defensive movements and vocal response. The piglets' recovery time was evaluated in the stable corridor (pass 1) and the farrowing pen (passes 4-5). In 73 animals, the spermatic cord was cut with a scalpel and the post-operative bleeding visually evaluated. In addition, exposure measurements of isoflurane were performed and anesthetic masks were examined for total bacterial contamination and indicator bacteria before and after the anesthetic procedure and following their disinfection., Results: Following insufflation of isoflurane for 90 seconds 94.3 % of the piglets and after prior testing of the interdigital claw reflex and possible extension of the anesthetic supply 95.3 % of the piglets showed no or minimal defensive movements during castration. An anesthetic incident occurred in 0.9 % of the piglets, but no animal died. The recovery time lasted 7.3 ± 4.7 minutes (pass 1) and 6.2 ± 3.3 minutes (passes 4-5). Cutting the spermatic cord with a scalpel led to a higher post-bleeding score (p < 0.001) compared to use of the emasculator. Isoflurane concentrations in ambient air ranged between 4.5 und 28.1 mg/m 3 . Masks disinfection reduced the total germ count by 99.8 %. Contaminations with Escherichia coli and MRSA were no longer detectable in 4 of 6 cases after disinfection., Conclusion: Isoflurane anesthesia led in over 94 % of the piglets to no or minimal defensive reactions during castration. Anesthetic incidents occurred rarely and no piglet losses were recorded. Therefore, automated isoflurane anesthesia is associated with a low risk for suckling piglets. Measurements of isoflurane concentrations on persons involved were below the internationally lowest limit value. Disinfection of the anesthesia masks may prevent germ transmission between animal groups via this potential vector., Competing Interests: Die Autoren bestätigen, dass kein Interessenkonflikt besteht., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

For a long time, scientists assumed that newborns have a severely limited sense of pain (if any). However, this assumption is wrong and led to a "start of the exit" from piglet surgical castration. Some of the currently discussed or already implemented alternatives such as general or local anaesthesia during surgical castration raise additional welfare concerns as well as legal problems and/or are hardly applicable. The favoured long-term, welfare-friendly "gold standard" is to raise entire male pigs (EM). However, this may also impose certain welfare problems under the current conventional housing and management conditions. The specific types of behaviour displayed by EM such as mounting and aggressive behaviours but also increased exploration, which are partially linked to sexual maturation, increase the risk for injuries. The current status of knowledge (scientific literature and farmer experiences) on housing of EM suggests that environmental enrichment, space, group-stability, social constellation, feeding (diet and feeder space), health and climate control are critical factors to be considered for future housing systems. From an animal welfare point of view, an intermediate variant to be favoured to reduce problematic behaviour could be to slaughter EM before reaching puberty or to immunize boars early on to suppress testicular function. Immunization against endogenous GnRH can reduce EM-specific problems after the 2nd vaccination.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of four local anesthetics on pain relief during surgical castration under standardized conditions in conscious piglets. Therefore, 71 male piglets (three to seven days) were distributed into control groups (handling, castration without anesthesia or analgesia) and local anesthetic trial groups (procaine, lidocaine, bupivacaine, mepivacaine). Then, 20 min prior to castration, animals of the treatment groups, except piglets in the handling group, received an injection of a local anesthetic or sodium chloride of 0.5 mL intratesticularly and 0.5 mL subscrotally. During injection and castration, defensive behavior was evaluated. Locomotor activity, as well as postoperative bleeding, wound healing and average daily weight gain were assessed to detect side effects. The injection caused increased defensive movements, significantly in the bupivacaine group. Lidocaine and mepivacaine significantly reduced defensive movements during castration, and procaine and bupivacaine only during severing of the spermatic cord. Impairments of locomotor activity were found in piglets injected with lidocaine, bupivacaine or sodium chloride. Considering healing, bleeding and weight gain, no negative impacts were observed. In conclusion, lidocaine and mepivacaine were able to achieve significant pain relief during the castration procedure, whereas procaine and bupivacaine only during the severing of the spermatic cord. Moreover, the injection of bupivacaine seemed to be painful itself.

Surgical castration of male piglets without analgesia is a painful procedure. This prospective, randomized and double-blinded study aimed to evaluate the analgesic effects of four different local anesthetics for piglet castration during the first week of life. In total, 54 piglets aged 3 to 7 days were distributed into 6 treatment groups: handling (H); castration without pain relief (sodium chloride, NaCl); and castration with a local anesthetic: 4% procaine (P), 2% lidocaine (L), 0.5% bupivacaine (B) or 20 mg/ml mepivacaine (M). By excluding stress and fear as disruptive factors via a minimum anesthesia model, all piglets received individual minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) isoflurane anesthesia. Twenty minutes before castration, all treatment groups except group H received one injection per testis. Then, 0.5 ml of a local anesthetic or NaCl was injected intratesticularly (i.t.), and 0.5 ml was administered subscrotally. Acute physiological responses to noxious stimuli at injection and castration were evaluated by measuring blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine and chromogranin A (CgA); limb movements were quantified. The results confirm that castration without analgesia is highly painful. Surgical castration without pain relief revealed significant changes in mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and HR. Local anesthetic administration significantly reduced changes in BP and HR associated with castration. Piglets receiving a preoperative local anesthetic exhibited the fewest limb movements during castration, while the NaCl group exhibited the most. Injection itself was not associated with significant changes in MAP or HR. However, many piglets exhibited limb movements during injection, indicating that the injection itself causes nociceptive pain. No significant differences were found between groups regarding parameters of plasma cortisol, catecholamines and CgA. In conclusion, all four local anesthetics administered are highly effective at reducing signs of nociception during castration under light isoflurane anesthesia. However, injection of a local anesthetic seems to be painful., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objective: Comparison of the effectiveness of local anaesthesia (LA) in piglet castration with the combination of scrotal and inguinal application of procaine 2 % and lidocaine 5 % to the intratesticular application of lidocaine 1 % using following parameters: adrenaline (A), noradrenaline (NA), defensive movements and coordinated movement patterns., Material and Methods: In 2 substudies 232 male suckling piglets (3-6 days of age) were randomly allocated to study groups. In groups L5 and group P2 lidocaine 5 % and procaine 2 % was applied inguinally and scrotally, respectively, while piglets of groups H (handling) and K (castration without local anaesthesia) were only fixated as for an injection. In group L1 lidocaine 1 % was injected intratesticularly. After 30 min piglets were were castrated, whereas animals of group H were again only fixated. In substudy 1 (n = 112) blood samples were taken to determine the concentration of catecholamines after castration. During injection and castration defensive movements were judged. In substudy 2 (n = 120) piglets completed a chute to document the individual stress level., Results: Groups H and L1 demonstrated significantly less defensive movements during fixation for injection/injection compared to the other study groups (p ≤ 0.05). After the injection piglets of group P2 had significantly more difficulties in the chute and needed > 50 % more time to complete the course. In all study groups defensive movements during castration were the highest at the moment of severing the spermal cord. Group K obtained the highest possible rating of 8 and differed significantly from the other groups as well as when cutting the skin (p ≤ 0.05). Both the concentration of A and NA significantly rose in all groups. The increase in A and NA was significantly higher in group 2, as well as the increase in NA in group K, both in comparison to the other study groups (p ≤ 0.05)., Conclusion: None of the applied techniques for local anaesthesia achieved a complete elimination of pain during castration of suckling piglets. The behaviour analysis indicated an altogether higher distress for P2. After castration, this injection led to a neuroendocrine pain reaction that was comparable to or higher than that of group K. In both lidocaine groups (L1, L5) the pain reaction after castration tended to be lower. These results provide approaches to apply longer acting LA with a higher analgesic potency in an appropriate dosage and with an appropriate method of application., Competing Interests: Die Autoren bestätigen, dass kein Interessenkonflikt besteht., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Objective: Comparison of the effectiveness of local anaesthesia (LA) in piglet castration by procaine 2 % and lidocaine 5 % both through combined inguinal and scrotal application as well as by intratesticular application of lidocaine 1 %. The parameters used were serum cortisol and chromogranin A (CgA) concentrations as well as wound healing, body weight and animal losses., Material and Methods: In 2 substudies, a total of 232 male piglets aged 3-6 days were included. Substudy 1 (112 piglets): Group H: fixation of piglets as for an injection; group L5: inguinal and scrotal injection of lidocaine 5 %; group P2: inguinal and scrotal injection of procaine 2 %; group L1: intratesticular injection of lidocaine 1 %. In all the groups, blood samples were taken 45 minutes before and 30 minutes post-injection (p. i.). Substudy 2 (120 piglets): Group H: handling only as for an injection and castration; group K: handling as for an injection and castration without LA after 30 minutes. Groups L5, P2 and L1: management as in substudy 1 and castration after 30 minutes. Blood samples were taken 75 minutes before as well as 30, 60 and 240 minutes post-castration (p. c.). The evaluated parameters were serum cortisol and CgA concentrations, wound healing, body weight and piglet losses., Results: Substudy 1: The elevation of the cortisol and CgA concentrations in group P2 p. i. were significantly higher than in the other groups. The mean total cortisol concentration of group P2 p. i. was significantly higher than those of the other groups. Substudy 2: At 30 minutes p. c., all the groups displayed a significant increase in the cortisol concentration compared to group H. In group P2, the highest total cortisol concentration was measured 60 minutes p. c. and the elevation of the cortisol level was significantly higher than in the other groups. In group L1, a significantly greater increase in the CgA level was observed at 60 minutes p. c. when compared to the other groups. Regarding wound healing, body weight and losses, there were no significant differences between the groups., Conclusion: The combined inguinal and scrotal injection of procaine 2 % induced a greater neuroendocrine stress response than the inguinal and scrotal injection of lidocaine 5 % and the intratesticular injection of lidocaine 1 %. LA using procaine 2 %, lidocaine 5 % or lidocaine 1 % did not completely eliminate pain during castration. Castration under LA with procaine 2 % induced a greater pain reaction than castration without LA. Both groups castrated with LA using lidocaine (L1, L5) tended to display lower pain responses after castration than group K. On the basis of the findings of this study, other local anaesthetics that have a stronger effect could be further investigated according to their pain-killing effects in an appropriate application route., Competing Interests: Die Autoren bestätigen, dass kein Interessenkonflikt besteht., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Objective: Determination of possible risk factors of adventitious bursae (AB) in finishing pigs depending on different types of flooring and evaluation of their impact on animal welfare., Material and Methods: The prevalence of adventitious bursae in 1702 finishing pigs from nine conventional fattening farms with different types of flooring (fully slatted, PigPort = partially slatted floor, slanted floor = solid concrete floor, deep straw-bedded) was investigated at entry into fattening farm and shortly before slaughter. Existing bursae were recorded and graded and the skin of the affected locations was evaluated. Additionally, the weight of each individual pig was recorded on both dates., Results: On fully slatted floors 94.0 % of the pigs showed at least one bursa shortly before slaughter, in PigPort-farms 87.6 %, in slanted floor-farms 82.9 % and on deep straw-bedded floor 50.3 %. When comparing both assessment dates the pigs on fully slatted floors had the highest increase in prevalence of bursae, followed by the pigs in PigPorts, on slanted floors and on straw. Furthermore, the pigs fattened on fully slatted floors showed a significantly (p < 0.001) higher number of bursae per animal at the end of the fattening period than the pigs fattened on other types of flooring as well as a significantly (p < 0.001) higher proportion of more severe bursae., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: The high prevalence of bursae assessed in this study represents, irrespective of the presence of pain, a deficit regarding animal husbandry in terms of technopathy and therefore a serious issue regarding animal welfare. That requires changes in terms of animal welfare standards. By reducing the amount of slots in the pens of fattening farms, as it is the case in PigPort- and even more in slanted floor-farms, the prevalence and number of bursae per pig and the severity of bursae can be reduced. An additional supply of a soft, flexible lying area, e.g. with straw as litter, is another positive measure that should be implemented if possible., Competing Interests: Die Autoren bestätigen, dass kein Interessenkonflikt besteht., (Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Objective: The worldwide prevalence of obesity has increased to 10% in men and 15% in women and is associated with severe comorbidities such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Animal models of obesity are central to experimental studies of disease mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Diet-induced obesity (DIO) models in rodents have provided important insights into the pathophysiology of obesity and, in most instances, are the first in line for exploratory pharmacology studies. To deepen the relevance towards translation to human patients, we established a corresponding DIO model in Göttingen minipigs (GM)., Methods: Young adult female ovariectomized GM were fed a high-fat/high-energy diet for a period of 70 weeks. The ration was calculated to meet the requirements and maintain body weight (BW) of lean adult minipigs (L-GM group) or increased stepwise to achieve an obese state (DIO-GM group). Body composition, blood parameters and intravenous glucose tolerance were determined at regular intervals. A pilot chronic treatment trial with a GLP1 receptor agonist was conducted in DIO-GM. At the end of the study, the animals were necropsied and a biobank of selected tissues was established., Results: DIO-GM developed severe subcutaneous and visceral adiposity (body fat >50% of body mass vs. 22% in L-GM), increased plasma cholesterol, triglyceride, and free fatty acid levels, insulin resistance (HOMA-IR >5 vs. 2 in L-GM), impaired glucose tolerance and increased heart rate when resting and active. However, fasting glucose concentrations stayed within normal range throughout the study. Treatment with a long-acting GLP1 receptor agonist revealed substantial reduction of food intake and body weight within four weeks, with increased drug sensitivity relative to observations in other DIO animal models. Extensive adipose tissue inflammation and adipocyte necrosis was observed in visceral, but not subcutaneous, adipose tissue of DIO-GM., Conclusions: The Munich DIO-GM model resembles hallmarks of the human metabolic syndrome with extensive adipose tissue inflammation and adipocyte necrosis reported for the first time. DIO-GM may be used for evaluating novel treatments of obesity and associated comorbidities. They may help to identify triggers and mechanisms of fat tissue inflammation and mechanisms preventing complete metabolic decompensation despite morbid obesity., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.)

Objective: The aim of the first part of the present study was to specify risk factors for the development of adventitious bursae on the limbs of weaning and finishing pigs., Material and Methods: In total, 192 pigs were examined weekly, recording the following parameters: general condition, number, size and localization of adventitious bursae on the limbs and sternum, gait and claws., Results: Adventitious bursae can occur at 13 positions on the limbs or sternum. These adventitious bursae were already evident when pigs were moved to the nursery. The prevalence of adventitious bursae increased constantly from weaning to slaughter. At the age of 24 weeks, 97.8 % of all investigated pigs displayed adventitious bursae (aged 4 weeks: 25.5 %; aged 12 weeks: 67.6 %). Heavier pigs had significantly more and larger adventitious bursae than lighter pigs of the same age. Furthermore, heavier pigs retrieved feed from the automatic feeder less frequently but ate larger amounts each time. In addition, pigs with poorer gait displayed significantly more adventitious bursae. In 95.6 % of all investigated pigs, claw lesions were evident at slaughter. The general condition was unaffected by adventitious bursae., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: Referring to the results of the present study and the general function of bursae protecting underlying structure against pressure, there is no indication that adventitious bursae affect the animal welfare in terms of the sensation of pain. Influenced by various factors, adventitious bursae develop with high prevalence and number per animal over the course of the life of pigs and can be described as a technopathy. Because of the exposure of adventitious bursae, there is a risk to become an ulcerated bursa of degree three in relation to injuries., Competing Interests: Die Autoren bestätigen, dass kein Interessenkonflikt besteht., (Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Epidermal powder immunization (EPI) is an alternative technique to the classical immunization route using needle and syringe. In this work, we present the results of an in vivo pilot study in piglets using a dried influenza model vaccine which was applied by EPI using a novel pyrotechnically driven applicator. A liquid influenza vaccine (Pandemrix ® ) was first concentrated by tangential flow filtration and hemagglutinin content was determined by RP-HPLC. The liquid formulation was then transformed into a dry powder by collapse freeze-drying and subsequent cryo-milling. The vaccine powder was attached to a membrane of a novel pyrotechnical applicator using oily adjuvant components. Upon actuation of the applicator, particles were accelerated to high speed as determined by a high-speed camera setup. Piglets were immunized twice using either the novel pyrotechnical applicator or classical intramuscular injection. Blood samples of the animals were collected at various time points and analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Our pilot study shows that acceleration of a dried vaccine powder to supersonic speed using the pyrotechnical applicator is possible and that the speed and impact of the particles is sufficient to breach the stratum corneum of piglet skin. Importantly, the administration of the dry vaccine powder resulted in measurable anti-H1N1 antibody titres in vivo., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Penile injuries in boars have been discussed as a relevant welfare problem in pork production with entire males (EM). The incidence of penile injuries with immunocastrated boars has not been described so far. Thus, it was the aim of this study to systematically compare frequency and severity of penile injuries in EM and IC. Incidence and size of penile injuries (wounds, scars, hematomas) were evaluated in 192 IC and 215 EM from one farm after slaughter (120 kg live weight; four batches (BA) in at least weekly intervals over five weeks). 75.8% EM and 48.4% IC showed injuries at the pars libra of the penis. Scars were observed in 71.2% EM and 44.8% IC. Scars/animal were significantly influenced by treatment (IC vs. EM), B and treatment x B and increased with age in EM (BA1: 2.61 ± 3.05; BA4: 3.59 ± 3.47), but not in IC (BA1: 2.00 ± 3.02; BA4: 1.22 ± 1.91). Wounds were obvious in 17.2% EM and 8.3% IC. Wounds/animal were only influenced significantly by treatment and were lower in IC than in EM. Thus, it is concluded that immunocastration reduces the frequency and severity of penile injuries in IC when compared to EM of same age and weight., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus, which currently affects 387 million people worldwide, is permanently rising in both adults and adolescents. Despite numerous treatment options, diabetes mellitus is a progressive disease with severe comorbidities, such as nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy, as well as cardiovascular disease. Therefore, animal models predictive of the efficacy and safety of novel compounds in humans are of great value to address the unmet need for improved therapeutics. Although rodent models provide important mechanistic insights, their predictive value for therapeutic outcomes in humans is limited. In recent years, the pig has gained importance for biomedical research because of its close similarity to human anatomy, physiology, size, and, in contrast to non-human primates, better ethical acceptance. In this review, anatomic, biochemical, physiological, and morphologic aspects relevant to diabetes research will be compared between different animal species, that is, mouse, rat, rabbit, pig, and non-human primates. The value of the pig as a model organism for diabetes research will be highlighted, and (dis)advantages of the currently available approaches for the generation of pig models exhibiting characteristics of metabolic syndrome or type 2 diabetes mellitus will be discussed., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In boars, sexually motivated mounting can not only cause problems such as lameness, but penile injuries are also reported. The relevance of penis biting in boars is discussed controversially, but reliable data is missing. In the present study, boars ( n = 435) and barrows ( n = 85) from experimental farms were therefore evaluated for scars, fresh wounds and severe injuries of the penis. Similarly, 321 boars from 11 farms specializing in pork production with boars, and 15 sexually mature wild boars from the hunting season of 2015/16 were included in the study. In domestic boars, a high incidence of penile injuries was obvious (76.6%-87.0% of animals with scars and/or wounds at experimental farms, 64.0%-94.9% at commercial farms). The number of boars with severe injuries was in a similar range in both groups (7.3% vs. 9.3%). At commercial farms, the number of scars but not that of fresh wounds increased per animal with age by 0.3 per week. Moreover, raising boars in mixed groups led to about a 1.5 times higher number of scars than in single-sex groups. In wild boars, a considerable proportion of animals (40%) revealed penile injuries, which were even severe in three animals. We therefore conclude that penis biting is a highly relevant and severe welfare problem in the male pig population, but this phenomenon is not limited to intensive production systems.

Objective: In addition to castration, further husbandry procedures are performed in piglets during the first week of life without anaesthesia. The aim of the present study was to investigate the pain-induced stress of the husbandry procedures castration, tail docking and ear tagging performed in piglets in combination in comparison with castration or handling alone. Furthermore, the effect of the presurgical administration of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug meloxicam alone or in combination with iron was investigated., Material and Methods: The levels of pain and stress were evaluated based on cortisol and catecholamine concentrations, as well as from behavioural observations. The compatibility and the effect of combined drug administration were assessed, and the daily weight gain and blood iron level were determined., Results: When comparing the application procedures, the slight changes observed at the iron injection site were reduced by 40% when using the mixture. After performing all three husbandry procedures without administration of meloxicam (KSO group), higher cortisol concentrations were induced for up to 4 hours compared to the handling (H) and castration (K) groups. In piglets receiving meloxicam or the mixture of iron and meloxicam presurgically, the cortisol concentration was significantly reduced for 0.5 hours after castration and up to 4 hours following all three husbandry procedures when compared to piglets without medication (groups K and KSO, respectively)., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: The results indicate that the blood cortisol concentration significantly rose due to multiple pain and distress when combining castration, ear tagging and tail docking. Application of meloxicam before performing these husbandry procedures reduced pain equally to its application before castration alone. The application of a mixed preparation of iron and meloxicam did not affect the efficacy of either drug and improved the local tolerance of the iron injection.

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of an anaesthesia using 70% carbon dioxide and 30% oxygen on endocrine stress reaction, behaviour and clinical parameters of male suckling piglets during castration. One hundred and seventy one male piglets, three to five days of age, were allocated to two experiments. They were assigned either to the procedures control handling, control castration, handling under anaesthesia or castration under anaesthesia in each experiment. In Experiment 1, adrenaline and noradrenaline plasma concentrations were measured in blood samples taken before (-15 min) and after (immediately, 2 min) handling/castration. In Experiment 2, behavioural observations and clinical parameters such as heart and respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, reflexes and recovery time were assessed at several sampling times. Measurement of adrenaline and noradrenaline concentrations revealed an increase in all groups after handling/castration (p < 0.0167), but higher concentrations were seen in the anaesthetized groups (25 to 93 times) than in control groups (two to four times). The excessive endocrine reaction suggests that carbon dioxide inhalation causes a more stressful situation in piglets compared to castration without anaesthesia. Behavioural abnormalities, significant decreases in the heart rate, the respiratory rate and the oxygen saturation (p < or = 0.001) including a cardiac arrhythmia (extrasystoles) underline the impression that CO2 inhalation anaesthesia negatively affects animal welfare. Based on the results of this study, this anaesthetic method is unsuitable to reduce stress induced by castration. Further research on alternatives is necessary to ensure the well-being of the piglets during castration.

The pre-emptive use of analgesics for the reduction of pain induced by the castration of suckling piglets was investigated by measuring cortisol before as well as 30 min (minutes), 1 h (hour), 4 h and 24 h after castration/handling and by post surgical behaviour (0-60 min and 180-240 min after castration/handling). 245 male, 4 to 6 days old piglets with a good general condition were divided into twelve groups. The drugs meloxicam, flunixin, metamizole or carprofen, respectively, or saline solution in control piglets were administered 15 to 30 min before manipulation. All tested non-opioid analgesics reduced the rise of the cortisol concentration after castration. Piglets receiving meloxicam and flunixin had significantly lower values 30 min, 1 h and 4 h after castration than the control group, and already after 1 h they did not differ significantly from the corresponding handling groups. The frequency of occurrence of tail wagging, drooping the tail and changing the position was explicitly reduced when meloxicam and flunixin were injected before castration. The effect of flunixin was most clear. Results indicate that non-opioid analgesics, especially efficient anti-inflammatory drugs like meloxicam and flunixin, are capable of reducing castration-induced pain in piglets.

Objective of this study was to examine the efficacy of various local anaesthetics (Procaine Hydrochloride, Procaine Hydrochloride + Epinephrin, Lidocaine Hydrochloride) used in castration of four to six day old male piglets. Animals of the control groups (I-IV) were treated analogous to the castration groups (V-IX) but not castrated. In groups I and V 15 minutes prior to castration/fixation the piglets were fixed as for injection but not medicated. The injection volume was standardised to 0.5 ml per testes. Local anaesthetics were applicated intratesticularly in five groups and intrascrotarly in two groups. Blood samples were taken shortly before and one, four and 24 hours after castration/fixation. The serum cortisol level was analysed to determine pain induced neuroendocrine stress reaction. To proof the tissue tolerance creatinkinase-(CK) and aspartataminotransferase-(AST) concentration were analysed. One, seven and 14 days after castration the healing process were evaluated by a wound score. Groups I to IV did not show any increase of the serum cortisol level. Contrary one hour after castration the average cortisol concentration of castration groups (V-IX) rose significantly. Cortisol concentration of the medicated castration groups (VI-IX) showed a comparable or even higher cortisol level as the not medicated control group (V). Determination of CK and AST indicated no tissue damage of the application of the local anaesthetics. The administration of local anaesthetics prior to the castration did not have any effect on the wound healing process. The results of this study lead to the conclusion that injection of local anaesthetics show a good tissue tolerance but the call for reduction of the castration pain by presurgical injection of Procaine Hydrochloride or Lidocaine Hydrochloride is not justified.

Since April 2006 piglets in Germany can only be castrated without anesthesia in the first 7 days of life. However, a castration is a painful experience even for an animal of this young age. Whether the castration under isoflurane-anesthesia is a reasonable alternative to castration without anesthesia was tested in the following investigation at 206 4 to 6 day old piglets. The serum-cortisol-concentration was chosen as the parameter for the pain caused by castration. A part of the animals was castrated without anesthesia (group II, n = 42) or with anesthesia (group IV, n = 41). Additionally Meloxicam, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, was applicated to piglets castrated with anesthesia (group V, n = 41). For control another part of the animals were only handled without (group I, n = 41) or with anesthesia (group III, n = 41), but they were not castrated. Cortisol-concentration prior to castration was compared to the concentration 0.5, 1,4 and 24 hours after castration. In addition cortisol was compared between groups at all points of time. Cortisol did rise significantly in castrated animals with animals with or without anesthesia than in animals of the non-castrated control groups. Cortisol after castration was significantly lower in piglets with an application of Meloxicam prior to castration. The pain caused by castration is an explanation for the differences in cortisol-concentration between castrated and not-castrated animals. Regarding those results, we assume that castration with isoflurane-anesthesia does not fulfil the demand for reducing pain after castration compared to castrating piglets without anesthesia.

According to the current German animal welfare law, male piglets may be surgical castrated without anaesthesia up to four weeks of life. This surgical procedure is painful during and also after the operation, for newborn animals as well as for adults. This study was aimed to investigate the impact of preoperative application of analgesics (Meloxicam) on the postoperative castration - pain of four to six days old male piglets. In this investigation all animals were randomly distributed in three groups:the first one was only immobilized but had no surgery, the second one was castrated without analgesics, and the third group was castrated after application of Meloxicam. Blood samples were taken immediately before immobilization, castration or application of the analgesic as well as one, four and 28 hours afterwards to determine Cortisol-concentration in the blood serum and, via this stress-marker, to indirectly evaluate the postoperative und possible intraoperative castration-pain. As a result all piglets castrated without preoperative application of Meloxicam showed significantly increased Cortisol-concentration one and four hours after castration. In contrast, piglets castrated with analgesics resulted in no significant increase during the entire experiment.