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Deforestation has a wide range of effects on hydrological and geochemical processes. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) dynamics, a sensitive environmental change indicator, is expected to be affected by deforestation, with changes in atmospheric sulfur (S) deposition compounding this. However, how precisely anthropogenic disturbance (deforestation) under a declining atmospheric S input scenario affects the underlying spatiotemporal dynamics and relationships of river DOC and sulfate with hydro-climatological variables e.g., stream water temperature, runoff, pH, total dissolved iron (Fetot), and calcium (Ca2+) remains unclear. We, therefore, examined this issue within the TERENO Wüstebach catchment (Eifel, Germany), where partial deforestation had taken place in 2013. Wavelet transform coherence (WTC) analysis was applied based on a 10-year time series (2010–2020) from three sampling stations, whose (sub) catchment areas have different proportions of deforested area (W10: 31%, W14: 25%, W17: 3%). We found that water temperature and DOC, sulfate, and Fetot concentrations showed distinct seasonal patterns, with DOC averaging concentrations ranging from 2.23 (W17) to 4.56 (W10) mg L-1 and sulfate concentration ranging from 8.04 (W10) to 10.58 (W17) mg L-1. After clear-cut, DOC significantly increased by 59, 58% in the mainstream (W10, W14), but only 26% in the reference stream. WTC results indicated that DOC was negatively correlated with runoff and sulfate, but positively correlated with temperature, Ca2+, and Fetot. The negative correlation between DOC with runoff and sulfate was apparent over the whole examined 10-year period in W17 but did end in W10 and W14 after the deforestation. Sulfate was highly correlated with stream water temperature, runoff, and Fetot in W10 and W14 and with a longer lag time than W17. Additionally, pH was stronger correlated (higher R2) with sulfate and DOC in W17 than in W10 and W14. In conclusion, WTC analysis indicates that within this low mountainous forest catchment deforestation levels over 25% (W10 and W14) affected the coupling of S and C cycling substantially more strongly than “natural” environmental changes as observed in W17.

Water-use efficiency (WUE) is one of the major axes of ecosystem functioning and an indicator for ecosystem health, but its variability due to climate change and droughts has not yet been thoroughly understood. Here, we use remote sensing and reanalysis data to map the trends and responses to droughts of three WUE indices from 1995 – 2018 in Europe. Further, we conduct a causal network discovery analysis to identify drivers of in WUE change. We found an increasing trends of photosynthesis per canopy conductance (IWUE) in forests and grasslands. IWUE also increased during droughts over whole Europe but this was not translated into an increase of photosythesis per water evaporated (i.e. increased EWUE). We highlight that the WUE indices are predominantly explained by ecohydrological variability, which underlines the role of water demand and supply to ecosystem function in Europe.

High-quality and long-term soil moisture (SM) products are crucial for studying the climate change over the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Five passive microwave remotely sensed SM products were compared against in-situ SM observations from five networks, i.e., Heihe, Naqu, Pali, Maqu, and Ngari. Five SM products include the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP), the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS), the Fengyun-3B (FY3B), the Land Parameter Retrieval Model (LPRM), and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The results show that SMAP performs better than other four products in every network, but it has a slightly underestimate and poor dynamic range in Heihe network, which mainly due to the significant heterogeneity of topography and land cover. Moreover, the underestimate for JAXA, the overestimate for LPRM, the noisy temporal variations for SMOS, good dynamic changes for FY3B but lacks perfect absolute accuracy, all of these can be reflected from the validation results.

High-quality and long time-series soil moisture (SM) data are increasingly required for the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) to more accurately and effectively assess climate change. In this study, to evaluate the accuracy and effectiveness of SM data, five passive microwave remotely sensed SM products are collected over the QTP, including those from the soil moisture active passive (SMAP), soil moisture and ocean salinity INRA-CESBIO (SMOS-IC), Fengyun-3B microwave radiation image (FY3B), and two SM products derived from the advanced microwave scanning radiometer 2 (AMSR2). The two AMSR2 products are generated by the land parameter retrieval model (LPRM) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) algorithm, respectively. The SM products are evaluated through a two-stage data comparison method. The first stage is direct validation at the grid scale. Five SM products are compared with corresponding in situ measurements at five in situ networks, including Heihe, Naqu, Pali, Maqu, and Ngari. Another stage is indirect validation at the regional scale, where the uncertainties of the data are quantified by using a three-cornered hat (TCH) method. The results at the regional scale indicate that soil moisture is underestimated by JAXA and overestimated by LPRM, some noise is contained in temporal variations in SMOS-IC, and FY3B has relatively low absolute accuracy. The uncertainty of SMAP is the lowest among the five products over the entire QTP. In the SM map composed by five SM products with the lowest pixel-level uncertainty, 66.64% of the area is covered by SMAP (JAXA: 19.39%, FY3B: 10.83%, LPRM: 2.11%, and SMOS-IC: 1.03%). This study reveals some of the reasons for the different performances of these five SM products, mainly from the perspective of the parameterization schemes of their corresponding retrieval algorithms. Specifically, the parameterization configurations and corresponding input datasets, including the land-surface temperature, the vegetation optical depth, and the soil dielectric mixing model are analyzed and discussed. This study provides quantitative evidence to better understand the uncertainties of SM products and explain errors that originate from the retrieval algorithms.

International audience; Soil moisture (SM) is a fundamental environmental variable for characterizing climate, land surface and atmosphere. In recent years, several SM products have been developed based on remote sensing (RS), land surface model (LSM) or land data assimilation system (LDAS). However, little knowledge is available in understanding spatial patterns of the uncertainty of different SM products and potential regional drivers over the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), a complex environment for accurate SM estimation. This paper investigates the sensitivity of the SM uncertainties based on the three-cornered hat (TCH) method and a generalized additive model (GAM) in terms of underlying surface characteristics (sand fraction, soil organic matter, vegetation, land surface temperature, and topography) and near-ground meteorology (precipitation and air temperature) in the third pole environment over the 2015–2018 period. Eleven SM products are involved in this work, including Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP), Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity INRA-CESBIO (SMOS-IC), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Land Surface Parameter Model (LPRM), Climate Change Initiative - Active/Combined (CCI_A/CCI_C), Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS), European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Interim reanalysis (ERA-Interim), Global Land Evaporation Amsterdam Model product a/b (GLEAM_a/GLEAM_b), and Random Forest Soil Moisture (RFSM). Results show that most of the SM products perform well across QTP, while SMOS-IC is strongly affected by radio-frequency interference in this region, JAXA has a relatively higher noise level over QTP, and LPRM has larger relative uncertainties (RUs) in the southeast of QTP. Nonlinear regression analysis demonstrates that variations of RUs in SMOS-IC and JAXA are driven by topography, while LPRM's are mainly controlled by vegetation. In addition, two groups of opposite (positive/negative) effects from topography and vegetation, topography and precipitation, and precipitation and land surface temperature affect the spatial variations of RUs in CCI_A, RFSM, and ERA-Interim, respectively. Meanwhile, more complex relationships are found between multiple surface factors and RUs of different products. In general, the underlying surface factors explain on average 39.41% and 28.34% of the variations in RS and LSM/LDAS SM RUs, respectively. Comparatively, the near-ground meteorology factors have a slightly larger effect on LSM/LDAS products than that on RS products.

Microwave remote sensing is able to retrieve soil moisture (SM) at an adequate level of accuracy. However, these microwave remotely sensed SM products usually have a spatial resolution of tens of kilometers which cannot satisfy the requirements of fine to medium scale applications such as agricultural irrigation and local water resource management. Several SM downscaling methods have been proposed to solve this mismatch by downscaling the coarse-scale SM to fine-scale (several kilometers or hundreds of meters). Although studies have been conducted over different climatic zones and from different data sets with good results, there is still a lack of a comprehensive comparison and evaluation between them to guide the production of high-resolution and high-accuracy SM data. Therefore, in this study we compared several SM downscaling methods (from 0.25° to 0.01°) based on polynormal fitting, physical model, machine learning and geostatistics over the Qinghai-Tibet plateau where there is a wide range of climate conditions from four aspects, that is, comparison with the original microwave product, comparison with in situ measurements, inter-comparison based on three-cornered hat (TCH) method, and a spatial feasibility analysis. The comparison results show that the method based on a physical model, in this case the Disaggregation based on Physical And Theoretical scale Change (DisPATCh) method, has the highest ability on preserving the coarse-scale feature of original microwave SM product, while to some extent, this ability could be a disadvantage for improving the accuracy of the downscaling results. In addition, soil evaporation efficiency (SEE) alone is not sufficient to represent SM spatial patterns over complex land surface. Geostatistics based area-to-area regression Kriging (ATARK) introduces the highest uncertainty caused by the overcorrection during the residual interpolation process while this process can also improve correlation (R) and correct the bias as well as provide more feasible spatial patterns and details. Two machine learning methods, the random forest (RF) and Gaussian process regression (GPR) show high stability on all comparison results but provide smoother spatial patterns. The multivariate statistical regression (MSR) method performs worst due to the fact that its simple linear regression model could not meet the requirement of SM fitting on complicated land surface. Moreover, all five downscaling methods show a declining accuracy after downscaling. This phenomenon may be caused by the spatial mismatch on fine-scale. In addition, this could also be caused by the tendency that downscaled results will usually provide more spatial details from downscaling predictors, while they cannot capture the temporal changes of the microwave SM product well. In general, this phenomenon tends to be more significant over heterogeneous land surface. All in all, five widely used soil moisture downscaling methods were compared based on a comprehensive comparison scheme to add to the body of knowledge in applicability of downcaling methods under different weather conditions.

Time series of soil moisture (SM) data in the Qinghai–Tibet plateau (QTP) covering a period longer than one decade are important for understanding the dynamics of land surface–atmosphere feedbacks in the global climate system. However, most existing SM products have a relatively short time series or show low performance over the challenging terrain of the QTP. In order to improve the spaceborne monitoring in this area, this study presents a random forest (RF) method to rebuild a high-accuracy SM product over the QTP from 19 June 2002 to 31 March 2015 by adopting the advanced microwave scanning radiometer for earth observing system (AMSR-E), and the advanced microwave scanning radiometer 2 (AMSR2), and tracking brightness temperatures with latitude and longitude using the International Geosphere–Biospheres Programme (IGBP) classification data, the digital elevation model (DEM) and the day of the year (DOY) as spatial predictors. Brightness temperature products (from frequencies 10.7 GHz, 18.7 GHz and 36.5 GHz) of AMSR2 were used to train the random forest model on two years of Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) SM data. The simulated SM values were compared with third year SMAP data and in situ stations. The results show that the RF model has high reliability as compared to SMAP, with a high correlation (R = 0.95) and low values of root mean square error (RMSE = 0.03 m3/m3) and mean absolute percent error (MAPE = 19%). Moreover, the random forest soil moisture (RFSM) results agree well with the data from five in situ networks, with mean values of R = 0.75, RMSE = 0.06 m3/m3, and bias = −0.03 m3/m3 over the whole year and R = 0.70, RMSE = 0.07 m3/m3, and bias = −0.05 m3/m3 during the unfrozen seasons. In order to test its performance throughout the whole region of QTP, the three-cornered hat (TCH) method based on removing common signals from observations and then calculating the uncertainties is applied. The results indicate that RFSM has the smallest relative error in 56% of the region, and it performs best relative to the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS), and European Space Agency’s Climate Change Initiative (ESA CCI) project. The spatial distribution shows that RFSM has a similar spatial trend as GLDAS and ESA CCI, but RFSM exhibits a more distinct spatial distribution and responds to precipitation more effectively than GLDAS and ESA CCI. Moreover, a trend analysis shows that the temporal variation of RFSM agrees well with precipitation and LST (land surface temperature), with a dry trend in most regions of QTP and a wet trend in few north, southeast and southwest regions of QTP. In conclusion, a spatiotemporally continuous SM product with a high accuracy over the QTP was obtained.

Vegetation biomass is an important parameter in the carbon cycle study. In this paper, a new technique to estimate aboveground vegetation wet biomass based on the Microwave Vegetation Indices (MVIs), which are computed through the observed brightness temperature of AMSR-E/Aqua under two adjacent frequencies, has been developed. The MVIs can provide significant new information compared with the conventional optical vegetation indices since the microwave measurements are sensitive not only to the leafy part of vegetation properties but also to the properties of the overall vegetation canopy where the microwave sensor can “see” through. We know that the absorption effect of vegetation canopy is mostly controlled by the total wet biomass. In this technique, we first retrieve the single scattering albedo and the optical thickness based on model simulations under AMSR-E configuration. Then, the estimated above two properties are used to derive the absorption fraction of vegetation. Finally, it can be related to the aboveground vegetation wet biomass.