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We have considered a model of a small finite system with internal particles and surface degrees of freedom. All the main statistical distributions were explicitly obtained, on a pre thermodynamic limit basis. The concept of temperature or any thermodynamic equations was not used. The distribution of coordinates of a surface element allows the rigorous determination of the pressure exerted by the internal particles. In this way, we have derived the equation of state for a small system with surface. It relates the pressure to the numbers of bulk and surface degrees of freedom, their mean energies and the volume. The mean potential energy of the surface was found to be higher than the mean kinetic energy, per degree of freedom. The obtained equation of state accounts for the influence of this excessive surface energy. In the thermodynamic limit, the temperature appears and the obtained equation of state transfers to the usual ideal gas one., Comment: 17 pages, 6 figures

Quantum gravitational effects, on the one hand, lead to a limitation in the accuracy of measuring spatial and time intervals, and, on the other hand, they generate a discrete of spacetime structure (quantum foam). The common source of both measurement limitations and discreteness of space-time are quantum fluctuations, so their characteristics must be related to each other. We study such a relationship using Barrow entropy as a source of fractal space-time structure. The minimum inaccuracy in measuring space-time intervals is expressed through the Barrow entropy parameter. The connection between the level of fractality and the speed of information processing is considered., Comment: 5 pages, 2 figures; typos corrected, references added

The cosmographic approach is used to determine the parameters of the Barrow entropic dark energy model. The model parameters are expressed through the current kinematic characteristics of Universe expansion., Comment: 5 pages , 1 figure, references added

At present, there is practically no doubt that general relativity is closely related to gravity. Moreover, after the work of Jacobson, Padmanabhan and others, it became clear that a thermodynamic interpretation of Einstein's relativistic equations is possible. On the other hand, we are witnessing the conceptual problems of the SCM (the problem of the cosmological constant, the problem of coincidences) and many years of futile attempts to directly fix the main components of the model (dark energy and dark matter). The combination of these two factors gave rise to a natural desire, at least at the phenomenological level, to build a cosmological model that represents the synthesis of gravity and thermodynamics and does not include components of an unknown nature. It is this model\`uentropic cosmology\`uthat is considered in this review. We have set as our goal, omitting the details that can be found in the references given, to present the conceptual foundations of the model., Comment: 43 pages, 2 figures; typos corrected, references added

The categorization of massive e-Commerce data is a crucial, well-studied task, which is prevalent in industrial settings. In this work, we aim to improve an existing product categorization model that is already in use by a major web company, serving multiple applications. At its core, the product categorization model is a text classification model that takes a product title as an input and outputs the most suitable category out of thousands of available candidates. Upon a closer inspection, we found inconsistencies in the labeling of similar items. For example, minor modifications of the product title pertaining to colors or measurements majorly impacted the model's output. This phenomenon can negatively affect downstream recommendation or search applications, leading to a sub-optimal user experience. To address this issue, we propose a new framework for consistent text categorization. Our goal is to improve the model's consistency while maintaining its production-level performance. We use a semi-supervised approach for data augmentation and presents two different methods for utilizing unlabeled samples. One method relies directly on existing catalogs, while the other uses a generative model. We compare the pros and cons of each approach and present our experimental results.

We discuss how the ideal rechargeable energy accumulator can be made, and what are the limits for solid state energy storage. We show that in theory the spin batteries based on heavy fermions can surpass the chemical ones by energy capacitance. The absence of chemical reactions in spin batteries makes them more stable, also they don't need to be heated in cold conditions. We study how carriers statistics and density of states affect energy capacity of the battery. Also, we discuss hypothetical spin batteries based on neutron stars.

The problem of the diffusion evolution of a pore filled with molecular hydrogen in a spherical granule in a hydrogen medium is solved. The initial position of the pore is displaced relative to the center of the granule. A nonlinear system of equations is obtained, which describes the behavior of the size of the gas-filled pore, the amount of gas in it and its position relative to the center of the bounded particle with time. Numerical calculations have shown the existence of two stages of evolution. The first (fast) stage is associated with the equalization of pressure in the pore with the external. The second is the slow diffusion "healing" of the pore, when the amount of gas adjusts to its size and the gas pressure is approximately equal to the external., Comment: 10 pages, 4 figures. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1910.13956

In this paper, the generation of magnetic fields in a nonuniformly rotating layer of finite thickness of an electrically conducting fluid by thermomagnetic (TM) instability. This instability arises due to the temperature gradient $\nabla T_0$ and thermoelectromotive coefficient gradient $\nabla\alpha $. The influence of the generation of a toroidal magnetic field by TM instability on convective instability in a nonuniformly rotating layer of an electrically conductive fluid in the presence of a vertical constant magnetic field ${\bf{B}}_0 \| {\rm OZ}$ is established. As a result of applying the method of perturbation theory for the small parameter $ \epsilon = \sqrt {(\textrm {Ra}-\textrm {Ra}_c) / \textrm {Ra}_c} $ of supercriticality of the stationary Rayleigh number $\textrm {Ra}_c$ a nonlinear equation of the Ginzburg-Landau type was obtained. This equation describes the evolution of the finite amplitude of perturbations. Numerical solutions of this equation made it possible to determine the heat transfer in the fluid layer with and without TM effects. It is shown that the amplitude of the stationary toroidal magnetic field noticeably increases with allowance for TM effects., Comment: 32 pages, 9 figures

Badges are endemic to online interaction sites, from Question and Answer (Q&A) websites to ride sharing, as systems for rewarding participants for their contributions. This paper studies how badge design affects people's contributions and behavior over time. Past work has shown that badges "steer" people's behavior toward substantially increasing the amount of contributions before obtaining the badge, and immediately decreasing their contributions thereafter, returning to their baseline contribution levels. In contrast, we find that the steering effect depends on the type of user, as modeled by the rate and intensity of the user's contributions. We use these measures to distinguish between different groups of user activity, including users who are not affected by the badge system despite being significant contributors to the site. We provide a predictive model of how users change their activity group over the course of their lifetime in the system. We demonstrate our approach empirically in three different Q\&A sites on Stack Exchange with hundreds of thousands of users, for two types of activities (editing and voting on posts).

Spin valves based on materials in which the spin-flip is suppressed by the spatial separation of charge carriers, while maintaining electric neutrality in the valve volume, are considered. The possibility of using these valves as electric batteries is discussed. It is shown that if the potential difference across the valve is controlled, incommensurability effects such as the "devil's staircase" may be expected, which are associated with the Coulomb interaction and redistribution of electrons occurring while the battery is charged and discharged. The effects of the emergence and vanishing of spontaneous spin polarization of conduction electrons with a change in the Fermi level in the valve are predicted. Such spin valves can also be used in implementing spintronic memory cells, supercapacitors, and similar devices.

The traditional formulation of the ultimate goal of physics (in the narrower sense of axiomatic theory) involves the derivation of physical laws from first principles. Though, such option doesn't make things easier since the task of the first principles finding is not less complicated versus to the original problem. The alternative path for understanding the world around us is to interpret the fundamental limit values as a factor determining the physical laws structure. A significant part of this path has already been completed. It was possible to show that the quantum mechanics can be built on the basis of the existence of the minimum quantum action, while the special theory of relativity - on the maximum speed c. Furthermore, from rather recently it became clear that a similar approach could be implemented in general relativity but in this case it can be constructed by postulating the existence of a minimum lengths. The goal of this review is to demonstrate the effectiveness of limit values as a tool for describing the physics of the Planck scale. Moreover, by virtue of their universality, the limit values allow us to establish relationships between, on first glance, distant fields of physics. We will consider the simplest consequences of the inclusion of gravitational effects in quantum reality. The most important consequence of this consideration is the inevitability of transition from the classical concept of continuum to the concept of the discrete space-time. The new physics generated by such transition will be in the center of our attention., Comment: 45 pages, 7 figures

The directed network of telephone subscribers is considered in the article. It can be described as a dynamic network with vertices that correspond to the subscribers of the telephone network and emerging directional edges that correspond to the connections between the respective subscribers. The position of the edge and its direction is determined by the incoming and outgoing calls from the corresponding vertices. The subject of the article is the statistical properties of the connections of a certain subset of telephone network subscribers. Such connections are dynamic in nature due to their appearance and disappearance. The number of outgoing (or incoming) connections occurred during a day at a selected vertex is used as the main characteristic. The distribution density of the number of outgoing (or incoming) connections (or calls) of such a network has been analyzed using the experimental data. It has been shown that such a distribution density over the number of calls obeys the lognormal distribution density, which depends on the two parameters. The values of two parameters, namely the mean value and the variance, determining the lognormal distribution density are established. The reasons for the appearance of a lognormal distribution density over the number of incoming (or outgoing) connections have been discussed. The statistical properties of other groups of subscribers have been considered as well. In particular, the group that makes a large number of outgoing calls to various subscribers of the telephone network has been selected for a separate study. The members of this group, who create and distribute spam can be called spammers. It has been shown that these groups, spammers for example, also obeys the lognormal distribution density over the number of calls but they are characterized by the different mean value and variance., Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures

Process of relaxation of Lennard-Jones cluster with an intrinsic pore was investigated by molecular dynamics method for different phase states of an initial cluster. Strong dependence of pore relaxation character on the initial cluster phase state was demonstrated. It was shown that, for the initially solid cluster, the system can reach metastable state where pore radius is fixed at one of the discrete set of values. These values do not depend on initial cluster temperature and size. Thus, it was demonstrated that, in a wide range of cluster sizes, inside solid clusters "magic" pores can stabilize forming a metastable state., Comment: 13 pages/ 4 figures

As part of a generalized "prisoners' dilemma", is considered that the evolution of a population with a full set of behavioral strategies limited only by the depth of memory. Each subsequent generation of the population successively loses the most disadvantageous strategies of behavior of the previous generation. It is shown that an increase in memory in a population is evolutionarily beneficial. The winners of evolutionary selection invariably refer to agents with maximum memory. The concept of strategy complexity is introduced. It is shown that strategies that win in natural selection have maximum or near maximum complexity. Despite the fact that at a separate stage of evolution, according to the payout matrix, the individual gain, while refusing to cooperate, exceeded the gain obtained while cooperating. The winning strategies always belonged to the so-called respectable strategies that are clearly prone to cooperation., Comment: 27 pages, 19 figures

In this paper we studied the weakly nonlinear stage of stationary convective instability in a nonuniformly rotating layer of an electrically conductive fluid in an axial uniform magnetic field under the influence of: a) temperature modulation of the layer boundaries; b) gravitational modulation; c) modulation of the magnetic field; d) modulation of the angular velocity of rotation. As a result of applying the method of perturbation theory for the small parameter of supercriticality of the stationary Rayleigh number nonlinear non-autonomous Ginzburg-Landau equations for the above types of modulation were obtaned. By utilizing the solution of the Ginzburg-Landau equation, we determined the dynamics of unsteady heat transfer for various types of modulation of external fields and for different profiles of the angular velocity of the rotation of electrically conductive fluid., Comment: 44 pages, 28 figures

The diffusive evolution has been studied of gas-filled pore has in a bounded particle in gas media. The nonlinear equation set, describing the behaviour of gas-filled pore on bounded particle is obtained. Asymptotic modes are considered for evolution of small and large pores. Analytical solutions are obtained in asymptotic modes. The comparison is conducted of these solutions with results of numerical solution of complete equation set. The characteristic regularities of gas-filled pore behavior are found at arbitrary pore position relative to matrix particle center., Comment: 30 pages, 6 figures. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1810.10319

The research is devoted to the stability of convective flow in a nonuniformly rotating layer of an electrically conducting fluid in a spiral magnetic field. The stationary and oscillatory modes of magnetic convection are considered depending on the profile of the angular rotation velocity (Rossby number $\textrm{Ro}$) and on the profile of the external azimuthal magnetic field (magnetic Rossby number $\textrm{Rb}$). The nonlinear dynamic system of Lorentz type equations is obtained by using the Galerkin method. Numerical analysis of these equations has shown the presence of chaotic behavior of convective flows. The criteria of the occurrence of chaotic movements are found. It depends on the parameters of convection: dimensionless numbers of Rayleigh $\textrm{Ra}$, Chandrasekhar $\textrm{Q}$, Taylor $\textrm{Ta}$, and external azimuthal magnetic field with the Rossby magnetic number $\textrm{Rb}=-1$ for Rayleigh $(\textrm{Ro}=-1)$ and Kepler $(\textrm{Ro}=-3/4)$ profiles of the angular rotation velocity of the medium., Comment: 37 pages, 14 figures

In the present work, evolution of gas-filled pore inside spherical nanoshells is considered. On the supposition that diffusion fluxes are quasistationary, the nonlinear equation system is obtained analytically, that describes completely the behaviour of gas-filled pore and matrix shell. Two limiting cases are considered: the case when the pore is small as compared to the matrix shell and the case of the pore close to the matrix shell boundary. The characteristic regularities of pore behaviour are established., Comment: 26 pages, 9 figures. arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:1809.06565

In the present work, the behavior of vacancy pore inside of spherical particle is investigated. On the assumption of quasistationarity of diffusion fluxes, the nonlinear equation set was obtained analytically, that describes completely pore behavior inside of spherical particle. Limiting cases of small and large pores are considered. The comparison of numerical results with asymptotic behavior of considered limiting cases of small and large pores is discussed., Comment: 25 pages, 10 figures