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Persistence represents a crucial trait in learning. A lack of persistence prevents learners from fully mastering their current skills and makes it difficult for them to acquire new skills. It further hinders the administration of effective interventions by learning systems. Although most studies have focused on identifying non-persistence and unproductive persistence behaviors, few have attempted to model students' persistence propensity in learning. In the present study, we evaluated students' persistence propensity in formative assessments by using an item response theory model with their attempt data. In addition, we modeled their wheel-spinning propensity. The students (N = 115) of first-level mathematics classes at a high school in Japan underwent the aforementioned formative assessments; their log data were collected. Persistence propensity was found to be correlated with frequency-related statistics, and wheel-spinning propensity was correlated with correctness-related statistics. However, persistence and wheel-spinning propensities were not correlated. A comparison of the students' scores with various persistence and wheel-spinning propensities revealed that both traits considerably influenced their academic performance. The present study provides insights into the use of attempt data to evaluate various characteristics crucial for learning, which are otherwise difficult to evaluate.

Reviewing learned knowledge is critical in the learning process. Testing the learning content instead of restudying, which is known as the testing effect, has been demonstrated to be an effective review strategy. However, education research recommends that instructors generate practice tests, but this burdens teachers and may also hinder teaching quality. To resolve this issue, the current study applied a modern artificial intelligence technique (BERT) to automate the generation of tests and evaluate the testing effect through e-books in a university lecture (N = 74). The last 5 minutes of each course session were utilized to review the taught content by having students either answer cloze item questions or restudy the summary of the core concepts covered in the lecture. A reading comprehension pretest was conducted before the experiment to ensure that the differences in prior knowledge were nonsignificant between groups, and a posttest was performed to examine the effectiveness of testing. In addition, we evaluated students' reading skills and reading engagement through their ability to identify key concepts and their interaction with e-books, respectively. A positive effect was observed for students who engaged in cloze item practice before the end of each class. The results indicated that the repeated testing group exhibited significantly better reading skills and engaged more with e-books than the restudying group did. More importantly, compared with only restudying the key concepts, answering the cloze items questions significantly improved students' reading comprehension. Our results suggest that machine-generated cloze testing may benefit learning in higher education.

Precision education is a new challenge in leveraging artificial intelligence, machine learning, and learning analytics to enhance teaching quality and learning performance. To facilitate precision education, text marking skills can be used to determine students' learning process. Text marking is an essential learning skill in reading. In this study, we proposed a model that leverages the state-of-the-art text summarization technique, Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT), to calculate the marking score for 130 graduate students enrolled in an accounting course. Then, we applied learning analytics to analyze the correlation between their marking scores and learning performance. We measured students' self-regulated learning (SRL) and clustered them into four groups based on their marking scores and marking frequencies to examine whether differences in reading skills and text marking influence students' learning performance and awareness of self-regulation. Consistent with past research, our results did not indicate a strong relationship between marking scores and learning performance. However, high-skill readers who use more marking strategies perform better in learning performance, task strategies, and time management than high-skill readers who use fewer marking strategies. Furthermore, high-skill readers who actively employ marking strategies also achieve superior scores of environment structure, and task strategies in SRL than low-skill readers who are inactive in marking. The findings of this research provide evidence supporting the importance of monitoring and training students' text marking skill and facilitating precision education.