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Background: This study aimed to evaluate the utility of neurofilament light chain (NfL), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L1 (UCHL1) and total tau (tTAU) serum concentrations as approximation for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of the respective biomarkers in the context of neuroinflammation and multiple sclerosis (MS)., Methods: NfL, GFAP, UCHL1 and tTAU concentrations in serum and CSF were measured in 183 patients (122 with neuroinflammatory disease and 61 neurological or somatoform disease controls) using the single molecule array HD-1 analyzer (Quanterix, Boston, MA). Spearman's rank correlations were computed between serum and CSF concentrations. In a second step, the effects of age, BMI, gadolinium-enhancing lesions in MRI, integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and presence of acute relapse were accounted for by computing partial correlations. The analyses were repeated for a subsample consisting of MS phenotype patients only (n = 118). EDSS, MS disease activity and acute relapse were considered as additional covariates. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed for each serum/CSF biomarker concentration to assess how well the particular biomarker concentration differentiates MS patients from somatoform disease controls. Correlations between serum and CSF levels as well as area under the curve (AUC) values were compared for the different biomarkers using z-test statistics., Results: Serum concentrations correlated positively with CSF levels for NfL (r = 0.705, p < 0.01) as well as for GFAP (r = 0.259, p < 0.01). Correlation coefficients were significantly higher for NfL than for GFAP (z = 5.492, p < 0.01). We found no significant serum-CSF correlations for UCHL1 or tTAU. After adjusting for covariates, the results remained unchanged. In the analysis focusing only on MS patients, the results were replicated. ROC analysis demonstrated similarly acceptable performance of serum and CSF NfL values in differentiating MS phenotype patients from somatoform disease controls. AUC values were significantly higher for serum and CSF NfL compared to other biomarkers., Conclusion: NfL and GFAP but not UCHL1 or tTAU serum concentrations are associated with CSF levels of the respective biomarker. NfL exhibits more robust correlations between its serum and CSF concentrations as compared to GFAP independently from BBB integrity, clinical and radiological covariates. Both serum and CSF NfL values differentiate between MS and controls., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest J.H. Schäfer reports travel reimbursement from Bayer AG. S. Bittner reports travel grants from Merck Serono, speaking honoraria from Biogen Idec, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck Serono, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi Genzyme and TEVA and research support from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Hertie foundation, as well as the Hermann and Lilly Schilling Foundation. C. Foerch reports speaker honoraria and honoraria for participating in advisory boards from Alexion, Bristol Myers Squibb, Novartis, Teva, Merck, Sanofi Genzyme, and Roche, CF received research support from Novartis and Sanofi Genzyme. Y. Yalachkov has been supported by travel grants from Novartis and Sanofi Genzyme and has received honoraria for active participation in advisory boards and speaker/writing honoraria by Bristol Meyers Squibb, Kassenärztliche Vereinigung Hessen, Landesärztekammer Hessen, Merck, Novartis, RG Gesellschaft für Information und organization mbH, Roche, Sanofi Genzyme, TEVA. His research is funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Fachbereich Medizin der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Heinrich und Erna Schaufler Stiftung and Novartis. K. Koerbel, M. Maiworm, M. Schaller-Paule, J. Jakob, L. Friedauer and F. Steffen report no COI relevant to this study., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Background: Definitions of aggressive MS employ clinical and MR imaging criteria to identify highly active, rapidly progressing disease courses. However, the degree of overlap between clinical and radiological parameters and biochemical markers of CNS injury is not fully understood. Aim of this cross-sectional study was to match clinical and MR imaging hallmarks of aggressive MS to serum/CSF markers of neuroaxonal and astroglial injury (neurofilament light chain (sNfL, cNfL), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (sGFAP, cGFAP))., Methods: We recruited 77 patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) and 22 patients with clinically isolated syndrome. NfL and GFAP levels in serum and CSF were assessed using a single-molecule-array HD-1-analyzer. A general linear model with each biomarker as a dependent variable was computed. Clinical and imaging criteria of aggressive MS, as recently proposed by the ECTRIMS Consensus Group, were modeled as independent variables. Other demographic, clinical or laboratory parameters, were modeled as covariates. Analyses were repeated in a homogenous subgroup, consisting only of newly diagnosed, treatment-naïve RRMS patients presenting with an acute relapse., Results: After adjusting for covariates and multiplicity of testing, sNfL and cNfL concentrations were strongly associated with the presence of ≥2 gadolinium-enhancing lesions (p sNfL  = 0.00008; p cNfL  = 0.004) as well as the presence of infratentorial lesions on MRI (p sNfL  = 0.0003; p cNfL  < 0.004). No other clinical and imaging criteria of aggressive MS correlated significantly with NfL or GFAP in serum and CSF. In the more homogeneous subgroup, sNfL still was associated with the presence of ≥2 gadolinium-enhancing lesions (p sNfL  = 0.001), presence of more than 20 T2-lesions (p sNfL  = 0.049) as well as the presence of infratentorial lesions on MRI (p sNfL  = 0.034), while cNfL was associated with the presence of ≥2 gadolinium-enhancing lesions (p sNfL  = 0.011) and presence of more than 20 T2-lesions (p sNfL  = 0.029)., Conclusions: Among proposed risk factors for an aggressive disease course, MRI findings but not clinical characteristics correlated with sNfL and cNfL as a marker of neuroaxonal injury and should be given appropriate weight considering MS prognosis and therapy. No significant correlation was detected for GFAP alone., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background and Purpose: MR imaging provides information on the number and extend of focal lesions in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. This study explores whether total brain T2 lesion volume or lesion number shows a better correlation with serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers of disease activity., Materials and Methods: In total, 52 patients suffering from clinically isolated syndrome (CIS)/relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) were assessed including MRI markers (total brain T2 lesion volume semi-automatically outlined on 3D DIR/FLAIR sequences, number of lesions), serum and CSF biomarkers at the time of neuroimaging (neurofilament light chain (NfL), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)), and clinical parameters. After log-transformation and partial correlations adjusted for the covariates patients' age, BMI, EDSS-score and diagnosis, the Fisher's r-to-Z transformation was used to compare different correlation coefficients., Results: The correlation between lesion volume and serum NfL (r = 0.6, p < 0.001) was stronger compared to the association between the number of T2 lesions and serum NfL (r = 0.4, p < 0.01) (z = -2.0, p < 0.05). With regard to CSF NfL, there was a moderate, positive relationship for both number of T2 lesions and lesion volume (r = 0.5 respectively, p < 0.01). We found no significant association between MRI markers and GFAP levels., Conclusion: Our findings suggest that there is a stronger association between serum NfL and T2 lesion volume, than there is between serum NfL and T2 lesion number. Improving robustness and accuracy of fully-automated lesion volume segmentation tools can expedite implementation into clinical routine and trials., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper: [The authors MSP, MH, JHS, ÖD, FS, EH, and KJW have no relevant disclosures. YY has been supported by travel grants from Novartis and Sanofi Genzyme, has received an honorarium for active participation in an advisory board by Sanofi Genzyme as well as speaking honoraria by Roche, Sanofi Genzyme, TEVA and Bristol Myers Squibb and RG Gesellschaft für Information und Organisation mbH. His research is funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and Heinrich und Erna Schaufler-Stiftung. SB reports receiving honoraria from Biogen Idec, Bristol Meyer Squibbs, Merck Healthcare, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi Genzyme and TEVA. His research is funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Hertie foundation and Hermann and Lilly-Schilling foundation. CF reports speaker honoraria and honoraria for participating on advisory boards from Novartis, Teva, Merck, Sanofi Genzyme, Alexion, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Roche, and has received research support from Sanofi Genzyme and Novartis]., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: The presence of contrast enhancement (CE) on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the principal criteria for diagnosis and disease activity of multiple sclerosis (MS). Therefore, MS patients are frequently exposed to contrast agents, which may cause deposition in the brain, restricting its use in repeat examinations. Thus, serum biomarkers may be valuable as surrogate parameters to evaluate MS activity., Methods: REDUCE-GAD was a prospective, multicentric, biobanking study to determine whether established serum markers (neurofilament light chain [NfL], glial fibrillary acidic protein [GFAP], tau protein, ubiquitin-carboxyl-terminal-hydrolase (UCH-L1), S100B and matrix-metalloproteinase 9 [MMP9]) are predictive of CE-positive MRI lesions. Blood samples were obtained from patients undergoing MRI 5 days before or after collection., Results: Patients (N = 102) from four different centers with confirmed MS or related disorders were included; n = 57 (55.9%) showed CE on MRI versus n = 45 (44.1%) without CE. Only higher NfL values indicated CE (odds ratio [OR] 1.05; 95% CI 1.0-1.09) and were correlated with number (ρ = 0.47; p < 0.001) and diameter of CE lesions (ρ = 0.58; p < 0.001). Nfl Z-scores improved diagnostic accuracy (OR 1.52; 95% CI 1.06-2.18). Receiver operator characteristic analysis revealed a reasonable cut-off value for NfL at 14.1 pg/mL (sensitivity 49.1%; specificity 82.2%; positive predictive value 77.8%; negative predictive value 56.0%). NfL ≥59.2 pg/mL was exclusively observed in patients with CE., Conclusions: Evaluation of several possible serum biomarkers for CE in MS patients provided the most robust results for NfL, particularly as Z-scores. Following further evaluation, biomarkers may help stratify the application of contrast agents for brain imaging in MS patients., (© 2023 The Authors. European Journal of Neurology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of European Academy of Neurology.)

Background: Biomarkers of disease activity have been intensively studied in multiple sclerosis (MS) but knowledge on predictors of disability improvement is limited. The aim of this pilot study was to explore whether increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor concentrations in serum and CSF (sBDNF/cBDNF) precede neurological and cognitive improvement in MS., Methods: In this pilot, monocentric prospective cohort study we collected serum/CSF samples at baseline together with EDSS (n = 36) and cognitive testing (n = 34) in patients with relapsing-remitting/primary progressive MS or clinically isolated syndrome. BDNF was assessed in serum and CSF with a single molecule array (SIMOA) HD-1 analyser (Quanterix). Twelve months later EDSS and cognitive testing were repeated. BDNF concentrations of patients with vs. without disability or cognitive improvement (disability improvement: decrease in EDSS ≥ 0.5; cognitive improvement: average z-score increase in neuropsychological performance ≥ 0.5) were compared using univariate ANOVAs adjusting for covariates., Results: Compared to subjects without, patients with disability improvement had higher sBDNF at baseline (q = 0.04). Subjects with cognitive improvement had higher cBDNF at baseline than those without cognitive improvement (q = 0.004). Secondary analysis demonstrated significant correlations between sBDNF and EDSS change (q = 0.036), cBDNF and average z-score change (q = 0.04) and cBDNF and number of cognitive tests with improvement (q = 0.04), while controlling for covariates., Conclusions: Our findings suggest a possible role for BDNF in neurological and cognitive improvement in MS. These findings have to be confirmed in a larger sample but they already highlight the potential of BDNF as a biomarker for disability improvement and neuroplasticity in MS., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest YY has been supported by travel grants from Novartis and Sanofi Genzyme, has received an honorarium for active participation in an advisory board by Sanofi Genzyme as well as speaking honoraria by Roche, Sanofi Genzyme, TEVA and Bristol Myers Squibb and RG Gesellschaft für Information und organisation mbH. His research is funded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG) and Heinrich und Erna Schaufler Foundation. SB has received funding for travel expenses for attending meetings from Merck Serono and honoraria from Biogen Idec, Bristol Meyer Squibb, Merck Serono, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi Genzyme and TEVA. His research is funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and Hertie foundation. CF reports speaker honoraria and honoraria for participating in advisory boards from Alexion, Bristol Myers Squibb, Novartis, Teva, Merck, Sanofi-Genzyme, and Roche. CF received research support from Novartis and Sanofi-Genzyme. All other authors report no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background and Objectives: To increase the validity of biomarker measures in multiple sclerosis (MS), factors affecting their concentration need to be identified. Here, we test whether the volume of distribution approximated by the patients' estimated blood volume (BV) and body mass index (BMI) affect the serum concentrations of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). As a control, we also determine the relationship between BV/BMI and GFAP concentrations in CSF. To confirm earlier findings, we test the same hypotheses for neurofilament light chain (NfL)., Methods: NfL and GFAP concentrations were measured in serum and CSF (sNFL/sGFAP and cNFL/cGFAP) in 157 patients (n = 106 with MS phenotype and n = 51 with other neurologic/somatoform diseases). Using multivariate linear regressions, BV was tested in the MS cohort as a predictor for each of the biomarkers while controlling for age, sex, MS phenotype, Expanded Disability Status Scale score, gadolinium-enhancing lesions, and acute relapse. In addition, overweight/obese patients (BMI ≥25 kg/m 2 ) were compared with patients with BMI <25 kg/m 2 using the general linear model. The analyses were repeated including the neurologic/somatoform controls., Results: In the MS cohort, BV predicted sGFAP (ß = -0.301, p = 0.014). Overweight/obese patients with MS had lower sGFAP concentrations compared with patients with MS and BMI <25 kg/m 2 (F = 4.732, p = 0.032). Repeating the analysis after adding patients with other neurologic/somatoform diseases did not change these findings (ß = -0.276, p = 0.009; F = 7.631, p = 0.006). Although sNfL was inversely correlated with BV (r = -0.275, p = 0.006) and body weight (r = -0.258, p = 0.010), those results did not remain significant after adjusting for covariates. BV and BMI were not associated with cGFAP or cNfL concentrations., Discussion: These findings support the notion that the volume of distribution of sGFAP approximated by BV and BMI is a relevant variable and should therefore be controlled for when measuring sGFAP in MS, while this might not be necessary when measuring cGFAP concentrations., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf of the American Academy of Neurology.)

Background: Measurement of D-dimer in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) allows insight into coagulation system activation in the central nervous system and can be utilized to monitor intracranial hemorrhage as well as acute phase processes beyond hemostasis in inflammatory and neoplastic diseases. So far, the measurability of D-dimer in low and very low concentrations in CSF was limited in conventional immunoassays. Novel high-sensitivity chemiluminescent immunoassays such as the luminescent oxygen channeling immunoassay (LOCI ® ) are getting increasingly available but have not been validated in CSF. The aim of this study was to investigate the accuracy and linearity of the LOCI ® in assessing D-dimer in CSF., Methods: INNOVANCE LOCI hs D-dimer reagent cartridge was used for the measurement of D-dimer in CSF of patients with different neurological diseases. For the evaluation of linearity, dilution series were performed in a pooled CSF sample with the determination of intra-assay precision (CV, coefficient of variation) in 3 individual samples with 20 replicates. Furthermore, D-dimer concentrations measured by LOCI ® were compared with the respective results of a routinely available clinical latex-enhanced immunoassay (HemosiIL D-Dimer HS 500)., Results: Linear regression analysis of the LOCI ® method revealed a r 2 of 1.00 ( p < 0 .001) with a regression coefficient B of 1.012 ± 0.003 (CI: 1.005-1.019, p < 0 .001) and an intercept of -1.475 ± 1.309 (CI: -4.493 to 1.543); the median intra-assay CV was 0.69% (range: 0.68-0.75). In total, 185 CSF samples were measured by LOCI ® technology, showing a mean concentration of 204.84 ± 2,214.93 ng/ml. D-dimer concentration between LOCI and latex-enhanced immunoassay differed by a factor of 10.6 ± 13.6 on average with a maximum deviation by a factor of 61.3; the maximum deviation was found at low concentrations., Conclusion: D-dimer in CSF of patients with neurological disease can be reliably measured by the LOCI ® method with high linearity and accuracy at low concentrations., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Kohlhase, Schaefer, Miesbach, Hintereder, Kirchmayr, Zwinge, Yalachkov, Foerch and Schaller-Paule.)

Introduction: The concurrent presence of both central nervous system (CNS) tumors and multiple sclerosis (MS) poses various diagnostic and therapeutic pitfalls and makes the clinical management of such patients challenging., Methods: In this retrospective, single-center cohort study, we searched our clinical databases (2006-2019) for patients with concurrent CNS tumors and MS and described their disease courses. Age at diagnosis of the respective disease and probabilities for MS disease activity events (DAEs) with vs. without prior tumor-specific therapy were tested pairwise using t-test for dependent samples and exact binomial test., Results: N = 16 patients with concurrent CNS tumors and MS were identified. MS diagnosis preceded the CNS oncological diagnosis by an average of 9 years (p = 0.004). More DAEs occurred in patients without prior chemotherapy (83.3%) than in patients with prior chemotherapy (16.7%; p = 0.008). This effect did not reach significance for patients with prior radiation therapy/radiosurgery (66.7% vs. 33.3%, p = 0.238). The average interval between DAEs and the last documented lymphopenia was 32.25 weeks., Conclusions: This study describes the clinical and demographic features of patients with concurrent CNS tumors and MS and suggests several practical approaches to their clinical management. Our findings suggest that adding a disease-modifying MS therapy to the regimen of patients treated with chemotherapy is necessary only if the patient suffers from a highly active, aggressive course of MS. In view of the lack of prospective trials, individual risk assessments should remain the foundation of the decision on MS treatment in concurrent CNS tumor diseases., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Cognitive performance may be impaired in MS even at the earliest stages of disease. We tested whether brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurofilament light chain levels in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples (sNfL/cNfL/sBDNF/cBDNF) collected at the time of diagnosis are associated with cognitive performance., Methods: We measured sNfL/cNfL/sBDNF/cBDNF using single-molecule array (Simoa) in 47 newly diagnosed patients (32 relapsing-remitting MS/6 primary progressive MS/9 clinically isolated syndrome). Partial correlations between average z-score on neuropsychological tests and sNfL/sBDNF/cNfL/cBDNF were computed after adjusting for covariates. Multivariate analysis of covariance determined the effect of cognitive status on biomarker levels. A composite measure of NfL and BDNF was submitted to similar exploratory analysis., Results: Cognitive performance correlated inversely with cNfL (r=-0.451/q=0.032) and cBDNF (r=-0.406/q=0.034). Impairment in at least two different tests was linked to higher cNfL (p=0.011) and cBDNF (p=0.035) levels compared to impairment in only one test and for cNfL also compared to no impairment at all (p=0.01). Composite CSF biomarker measure accounting for both cNfL and cBDNF correlated more strongly with tests of information processing (p=0.048) and verbal learning/memory consolidation (p = 0.02) as compared to the single CSF biomarkers., Conclusions: CSF BDNF and NfL levels measured at the time of diagnosis are inversely associated with cognitive performance in MS. Our findings suggest that CSF biomarkers linked to different pathophysiological processes reflect neuropsychological impairment in the earliest stages of the disease. Combining different CSF measures might facilitate the developing of a better biomarker of cognition in MS., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Background: The interaction of central nervous system inflammation and coagulation system activation in multiple sclerosis (MS) receives increasing attention for its diagnostic and therapeutic potential. During blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, fibrinogen migrates into the CNS and contributes to inflammation. In the coagulation cascade, fibrinogen is converted into fibrin by thrombin, which itself is cleaved from prothrombin by activated factor XII. We hypothesized that the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin can be quantified by prothrombin fragment 1+2 (PF1.2) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Primary endpoint was the correlation between PF1.2, D-dimer and fibrinogen in CSF of patients with neuroinflammatory diseases. Secondary endpoints were PF1.2 levels depending on presence of contrast enhancement (CE) on MRI, and correlation between PF1.2 with serum-CSF albumin quotient (Qalb). Additionally, an exploratory analysis of CSF PF1.2 levels to distinguish between MS-patients and controls without neurological disease was performed., Methods: Patients admitted for a suspected inflammatory CNS disease were prospectively recruited from October 2017 to December 2020. Citrated CSF samples were obtained and analyzed for PF1.2, fibrinogen and D-dimer using a highly sensitive luminescent oxygen channeling immunoassay. Patient clinical data and final diagnoses were retrospectively collected and analyzed., Results: 187 patients were included, of whom 116 received diagnoses of relapsing-remitting (RRMS), primary-progressive MS, clinically or radiologically isolated syndrome, or anti-aquaporin-4-/anti-myelin-oligodendrocyte-glycoprotein-antibody-related diseases. CSF analysis of those 116 patients revealed a correlation between PF1.2 and CSF fibrinogen (ρ=.315; p<.001) as well as between PF1.2 and CSF D-dimer (ρ=.531; p<.001). Among all 187 patients, CSF PF1.2 was increased in patients with CE on MRI (n=71; 147.38 pmol/l; IQR 83.68-215.36) compared to patients without CE (n=86; 100.03 pmol/l; IQR 33.87-162.80; p=.008). CSF PF1.2 correlated significantly with Qalb (ρ=.445; p<.001). No differences of CSF PF1.2 levels were observed between RRMS (131.48 pmol/l, IQR 42.75-204.10) and disease controls (102.28 pmol/l; IQR 55.60-159.94; p=.606)., Conclusion: In patients with autoimmune inflammatory CNS diseases PF1.2 correlated strongly with fibrinogen and D-dimer in CSF, indicating coagulation system activation. The findings suggest that thrombin generation might require acute BBB dysfunction to exert autoimmune effects in the CNS., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Background and Purpose: The transition from relapsing-remitting to secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) is not well defined. Different definitions and tools to identify SPMS have been proposed. Meanwhile, early diagnosis of "active" SPMS is getting progressively more important as pharmaceutical treatment options are developed. In this study, we compared different classification methods regarding their accuracy to reliably identify "active SPMS.", Methods: Independent from previous diagnostic classification, we descriptively analyzed the disease course (regarding relapses, progression, and magnetic resonance imaging activity) in 208 consecutive multiple sclerosis (MS) patients treated in our MS outpatient clinic in 2018. Patients were reclassified according to different SPMS criteria and tools. Diagnostic accuracy in identifying patients with "active SPMS" was determined., Results: Comparing the tools to each other, significant variability in the number of patients identified as having SPMS as well as in the proportion of these patients having "active SPMS" was noted. Applying both diagnostic criteria "SPMS" and "active disease" reduced the sensitivity in identifying patients with active progressive disease in all approaches., Conclusions: We propose lessening the emphasis on the label "SPMS" in favor of the more open term "active progressive disease" to simplify the process of identifying patients who may benefit from immune therapy., (© 2021 The Authors. European Journal of Neurology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of European Academy of Neurology.)

Background and Objectives: Proteins of the coagulation system contribute to autoimmune inflammation in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). On blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, fibrinogen enters the CNS and is rapidly converted to fibrin, unfolding pleiotropic autoimmune mechanisms. Fibrin accumulation leads to subsequent proteolytic degradation that results in D-dimer generation. The primary objective of this study was to determine intrathecal levels of D-dimer in CSF as a measure of intrathecal coagulation cascade activation and to evaluate its diagnostic utility in patients with MS in contrast to healthy subjects. Key secondary objectives included analysis of CSF D-dimer in differential diagnoses of MS and its relation to routine clinical markers of disease activity., Methods: Patients admitted for the assessment of suspected MS were prospectively recruited from October 2017 to December 2020. Blood plasma and citrated CSF samples were analyzed using a highly sensitive luminescent oxygen channeling immunoassay. Intrathecal generation of D-dimer was analyzed by adjusting for CSF/serum albumin (Q alb ) and CSF/plasma D-dimer quotients (Q D-dimer ), and corresponding CSF fibrinogen levels were determined. Final diagnoses after full evaluation and clinical data were recorded., Results: Of 187 patients, 113 patients received a diagnosis of MS or clinically/radiologically isolated syndrome. We found increased intrathecal CSF D-dimer generation levels (Q D-dimer /Q alb -index) for patients with relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS; n = 71, median 4.7, interquartile range [IQR] 2.5-8.0) when compared with those for disease controls (n = 22, median 2.6, IQR 2.1-4.8, p = 0.031). Absolute CSF D-dimer values correlated with CSF fibrinogen levels (r = 0.463; p < 0 .001) and CSF leukocytes (r = 0.273; p = 0.003) and were elevated in MS patients with contrast enhancement (CE) compared with MS patients without CE on MRI (n = 48, median 6 ng/mL, and IQR 3-15.25 vs n = 41, median 4 ng/mL, and IQR 2-7; p = 0.026). Exploratory subgroup analyses indicated a correlation of intrathecal inflammatory activity and CSF D-dimer levels., Discussion: D-dimer in CSF can be reliably determined and correlates with markers of CNS inflammation and CSF fibrinogen levels. Adjusted for BBB dysfunction, CSF D-dimer may allow the identification of intrathecal coagulation cascade activation in patients with MS., Classification of Evidence: This study provides Class I evidence that CSF D-dimer levels are elevated in patients with RRMS., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf of the American Academy of Neurology.)

Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) can rarely manifest as a predominantly psychiatric syndrome without overt neurological symptoms. This study's aim was to characterize psychiatric patients with AE; therefore, anonymized data on patients with suspected AE with predominantly or isolated psychiatric syndromes were retrospectively collected. Patients with readily detectable neurological symptoms suggestive of AE (e.g., epileptic seizures) were excluded. Patients were classified as "probable psychiatric AE (pAE)," if well-characterized neuronal IgG autoantibodies were detected or "possible pAE" (e.g., with detection of nonclassical neuronal autoantibodies or compatible cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) changes). Of the 91 patients included, 21 (23%) fulfilled our criteria for probable (autoantibody-defined) pAE and 70 (77%) those for possible pAE. Among patients with probable pAE, 90% had anti-NMDA receptor (NMDA-R) autoantibodies. Overall, most patients suffered from paranoid-hallucinatory syndromes (53%). Patients with probable pAE suffered more often from disorientation (p < 0.001) and impaired memory (p = 0.001) than patients with possible pAE. Immunotherapies were performed in 69% of all cases, mostly with high-dose corticosteroids. Altogether, 93% of the patients with probable pAE and 80% of patients with possible pAE reportedly benefited from immunotherapies (p = 0.251). In summary, this explorative, cross-sectional evaluation confirms that autoantibody-associated AE syndromes can predominantly manifest as psychiatric syndromes, especially in anti-NMDA-R encephalitis. However, in three out of four patients, diagnosis of possible pAE was based on nonspecific findings (e.g., slight CSF pleocytosis), and well-characterized neuronal autoantibodies were absent. As such, the spectrum of psychiatric syndromes potentially responding to immunotherapies seems not to be limited to currently known autoantibody-associated AE. Further trials are needed., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Standardized neuropsychological testing serves to quantify cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. However, the exact mechanism underlying the translation of cognitive dysfunction into difficulties in everyday tasks has remained unclear. To answer this question, we tested if MS patients with intact vs. impaired information processing speed measured by the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) differ in their visual search behavior during ecologically valid tasks reflecting everyday activities., Methods: Forty-three patients with relapsing-remitting MS enrolled in an eye-tracking experiment consisting of a visual search task with naturalistic images. Patients were grouped into "impaired" and "unimpaired" according to their SDMT performance. Reaction time, accuracy and eye-tracking parameters were measured., Results: The groups did not differ regarding age, gender, and visual acuity. Patients with impaired SDMT (cut-off SDMT-z-score < -1.5) performance needed more time to find and fixate the target ( q = 0.006). They spent less time fixating the target ( q = 0.042). Impaired patients had slower reaction times and were less accurate (both q = 0.0495) even after controlling for patients' upper extremity function. Exploratory analysis revealed that unimpaired patients had higher accuracy than impaired patients particularly when the announced target was in unexpected location ( p = 0.037). Correlational analysis suggested that SDMT performance is inversely linked to the time to first fixation of the target only if the announced target was in its expected location ( r = -0.498, p = 0.003 vs. r = -0.212, p = 0.229)., Conclusion: Dysfunctional visual search behavior may be one of the mechanisms translating cognitive deficits into difficulties in everyday tasks in MS patients. Our results suggest that cognitively impaired patients search their visual environment less efficiently and this is particularly evident when top-down processes have to be employed., Competing Interests: YY has been supported by travel grants from Novartis and Sanofi Genzyme, has received an honorarium for active participation in an advisory board by Sanofi Genzyme as well as speaking honoraria by Roche and Sanofi Genzyme. CF reports speaker honoraria and honoraria for participating in advisory boards from Alexion, Bristol Myers Sqibb, Novartis, Teva, Merck, Sanofi-Genzyme, and Roche. CF received research support from Novartis and Sanofi-Genzyme. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Gehrig, Bergmann, Fadai, Soydaş, Buschenlange, Naumer, Kaiser, Frisch, Behrens, Foerch and Yalachkov.)

Background: Inflammation is essential for the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). While the immune system contribution to the development of neurological symptoms has been intensively studied, inflammatory biomarkers for mental symptoms such as depression are poorly understood in the context of MS. Here, we test if depression correlates with peripheral and central inflammation markers in MS patients as soon as the diagnosis is established. Methods: Forty-four patients were newly diagnosed with relapsing-remitting MS, primary progressive MS or clinically isolated syndrome. Age, gender, EDSS, C-reactive protein (CRP), albumin, white blood cells count in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF WBC), presence of gadolinium enhanced lesions (GE) on T1-weighted images and total number of typical MS lesion locations were included in linear regression models to predict Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) score and the depression dimension of the Symptoms Checklist 90-Revised (SCL90RD). Results: CRP elevation and GE predicted significantly BDI (CRP: p = 0.007; GE: p = 0.019) and SCL90RD (CRP: p = 0.004; GE: p = 0.049). The combination of both factors resulted in more pronounced depressive symptoms ( p = 0.04). CSF WBC and EDSS as well as the other variables were not correlated with depressive symptoms. Conclusions: CRP elevation and GE are associated with depressive symptoms in newly diagnosed MS patients. These markers can be used to identify MS patients exhibiting a high risk for the development of depressive symptoms in early phases of the disease., Competing Interests: YY has been supported by travel grants from Novartis and Sanofi Genzyme, has received an honorarium for active participation in an advisory board by Sanofi Genzyme as well as speaking honoraria by Roche and Sanofi Genzyme. CF reports speaker honoraria and honoraria for participating in advisory boards from Alexion, Novartis, Teva, Merck, Sanofi-Genzyme, and Roche and he received research support from Novartis and Sanofi-Genzyme. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Yalachkov, Anschuetz, Jakob, Schaller-Paule, Schaefer, Reilaender, Friedauer, Behrens and Foerch.)

The asymmetrical structure of the human brain is reflected not only by innate interhemispheric differences but also by lateralization in neurological disease. We tested if unilateral autoimmune optic neuritis (aON) manifests more frequently on the left than the right eye in clinical and neuroimaging terms and whether Google searches for aON symptoms reflect this bias, too. We employed a retrospective analysis of a patient cohort from 2009 to 2019 with 552 unilateral aONs and 374 corresponding MRI imaging data sets. Searchmetrics Suite keywords tool was applied for the analysis of Google searches on aON-symptoms in Germany, the US and the UK for the last 12 months. Left eye aON manifestations were more frequent than right aON manifestations (55.3% vs. 44.7%, p = 0.015) and 1.9 times more likely to be associated with a pathological MRI finding in the affected optic nerve (p = 0.013). Keywords describing aON-typical but not other ocular symptoms were more frequently associated with Google searches for the left in comparison to the right eye (p < 0.001). Autoimmune optic neuritis more frequently affects the left than the right eye and people search on the Internet more often for left-sided aON symptoms. Although a reporting bias due to an increased perception of left eye symptoms is one possible explanation, MRI evidence of more frequent optic nerve affection for the left in comparison to the right side suggests a leftward lateralization bias similar to the one previously shown for cerebral neuroinflammatory lesions., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Determinants of quality of life (QoL) in demyelinating disorders have been investigated predominantly for multiple sclerosis, especially with regard to "soft clinical signs" such as psychiatric distress. In this exploratory study, we aimed to identify common determinants of QoL for both central and peripheral demyelination in the understudied disease entities of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) and chronic autoimmune demyelinating polyneuropathy (CADP)., Methods: 20 NMOSD and 16 CADP patients were evaluated for physical disability (EDSS and INCAT ODSS), cognitive dysfunction (neuropsychological test battery), psychiatric distress (SCL-90-R), depression (BDI), fatigue (FSMC) and quality of life (EQ-5D-3 L). A linear regression with QoL as a dependent variable and clinical parameters and demographic covariates as independent variables was computed. Additionally, a multivariate analysis of variance was computed to investigate whether NMOSD and CADP differed with regard to QoL and clinical parameters., Results: Physical disability and psychiatric distress affected QoL in both NMOSD and CADP with a stronger effect for psychiatric distress in comparison to physical disability, as indicated by the higher standardized beta coefficient for psychiatric distress (b = -0.540; p = 0.002 vs. b = -0.614; p = 0.028). NMOSD reported higher subjective well-being than CADP patients (F = 6.845, p = 0.015) while having similar physical disability, cognitive dysfunction, psychiatric distress, depression and fatigue and after having accounted for the influence of age, gender, education and disease duration., Conclusions: Our findings suggest that physical disability and psychiatric distress above all clinical factors affect QoL in patients with NMOSD and CADP. Addressing adequately this aspect in demyelinating diseases would contribute to a better QoL in these patients. Furthermore, higher subjective well-being scores for NMOSD than CADP might be attributable to the distinct immunomodulatory therapy regimens and course (relapse-driven vs. chronic) of the two diseases., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Background: Chronic autoimmune demyelinating polyneuropathies (CADP) result in impaired sensorimotor function. However, anecdotal clinical observations suggest the development of cognitive deficits during the course of disease., Methods: We tested 16 patients with CADP (11 patients with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, 4 patients with multifocal motor neuropathy and 1 patient with multifocal acquired demyelinating sensory and motor neuropathy) and 40 healthy controls (HC) with a neuropsychological test battery. Blood-brain-barrier dysfunction (BBBd) in patients was assessed retrospectively by analysing the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) status at the time the diagnosis of CAPD was established., Results: CADP patients failed on average in 1.7 out of 9 neuropsychological tests (SD ± 1.25, min. 0, max. 5). 50% of the CADP patients failed in at least two neuropsychological tests and 44.3% of the patients failed in at least two different cognitive domains. CADP patients exhibiting BBBd at the time of first diagnosis failed in more neuropsychological tests than patients with intact integrity of the BBB (p < 0.05). When compared directly with the HC group, CADP patients performed worse than HC in tests measuring information processing ability and speed as well as phonemic verbal fluency after adjusting for confounding covariates., Conclusions: Our results suggest that mild to moderate cognitive deficits might be present in patients with CAPD. One possible tentative explanation, albeit strong evidence is still lacking for this pathophysiological mechanism, refers to the effect of autoimmune antibodies entering the CNS via the dysfunctional blood-brain barrier typically seen in some of the CADP patients., Competing Interests: Yavor Yalachkov has been supported by travel grants from Novartis and Sanofi Genzyme, has received an honorarium for active participation in an advisory board by Sanofi Genzyme as well as a speaking honorarium by Roche. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Background: Numerous factors can affect multiple sclerosis (MS) patients' quality of life (QoL). We investigated how physical impairment, upper extremity function, cognitive impairment, cognitive reserve, symptoms of psychological distress, depression, fatigue as well as age and disease duration contribute to patient-reported measures of QoL in relapse-remitting MS (RRMS) and progressive MS (PMS)., Methods: 39 patients with RRMS and 16 patients with PMS were evaluated for physical impairment (EDSS assessed by a neurologist), upper extremity function (9-hole peg test), cognitive deficits (broad neuropsychological test battery), cognitive reserves (highest obtained degree of education and vocabulary), symptoms of psychological distress (Symptom Checklist-90-R), depression (Beck Depression Inventory) and fatigue (Fatigue Scale for Motor and Cognitive Functions). The effects of these variables on QoL, as measured with the EQ-5D-3L, were tested with a multivariate analysis of variance., Results: Degree of education, MS disease type, disease duration, BDI and SCL-90-R-scores affected significantly the EQ-5D index. Post-hoc analysis revealed that patients with university education, RRMS, shorter disease duration as well as less depression and psychological distress symptoms had significantly higher EQ-5D indices. No significant effects were observed for measures of physical disability, cognitive impairment or fatigue., Conclusions: Depression and psychological distress symptoms are among the factors with the most essential impact on subjective well-being in MS patients. Since they can be targeted by both psychopharmacological and psychotherapeutic treatment, focusing on mental comorbidity could substantially increase QoL in MS., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Objective: To determine whether the performance of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients in the sound-induced flash illusion (SiFi), a multisensory perceptual illusion, would reflect their cognitive impairment. Methods: We performed the SiFi task as well as an extensive neuropsychological testing in 95 subjects [39 patients with relapse-remitting MS (RRMS), 16 subjects with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMS) and 40 healthy control subjects (HC)]. Results: MS patients reported more frequently the multisensory SiFi than HC. In contrast, there were no group differences in the control conditions. Essentially, patients with progressive type of MS continued to perceive the illusion at stimulus onset asynchronies (SOA) that were more than three times longer than the SOA at which the illusion was already disrupted for healthy controls. Furthermore, MS patients' degree of cognitive impairment measured with a broad neuropsychological battery encompassing tests for memory, attention, executive functions, and fluency was predicted by their performance in the SiFi task for the longest SOA of 500 ms. Conclusions: These findings support the notion that MS patients exhibit an altered multisensory perception in the SiFi task and that their susceptibility to the perceptual illusion is negatively correlated with their neuropsychological test performance. Since MS lesions affect white matter tracts and cortical regions which seem to be involved in the transfer and processing of both crossmodal and cognitive information, this might be one possible explanation for our findings. SiFi might be considered as a brief, non-expensive, language- and education-independent screening test for cognitive deficits in MS patients.

In the later stages of addiction, automatized processes play a prominent role in guiding drug-seeking and drug-taking behavior. However, little is known about the neural correlates of automatized drug-taking skills and drug-related action knowledge in humans. We employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while smokers and non-smokers performed an orientation affordance task, where compatibility between the hand used for a behavioral response and the spatial orientation of a priming stimulus leads to shorter reaction times resulting from activation of the corresponding motor representations. While non-smokers exhibited this behavioral effect only for control objects, smokers showed the affordance effect for both control and smoking-related objects. Furthermore, smokers exhibited reduced fMRI activation for smoking-related as compared to control objects for compatible stimulus-response pairings in a sensorimotor brain network consisting of the right primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, middle occipital gyrus, left fusiform gyrus and bilateral cingulate gyrus. In the incompatible condition, we found higher fMRI activation in smokers for smoking-related as compared to control objects in the right primary motor cortex, cingulate gyrus, and left fusiform gyrus. This suggests that the activation and performance of deeply embedded, automatized drug-taking schemata employ less brain resources. This might reduce the threshold for relapsing in individuals trying to abstain from smoking. In contrast, the interruption or modification of already triggered automatized action representations require increased neural resources.

Visuo-haptic integration contributes essentially to object shape recognition. Although there has been a considerable advance in elucidating the neural underpinnings of multisensory perception, it is still unclear whether seeing an object and exploring it with the dominant hand elicits the same brain response as compared to the non-dominant hand. Using fMRI to measure brain activation in right-handed participants, we found that for both left- and right-hand stimulation the left lateral occipital complex (LOC) and anterior cerebellum (aCER) were involved in visuo-haptic integration of familiar objects. These two brain regions were then further investigated in another study, where unfamiliar, novel objects were presented to a different group of right-handers. Here the left LOC and aCER were more strongly activated by bimodal than unimodal stimuli only when the left but not the right hand was used. A direct comparison indicated that the multisensory gain of the fMRI activation was significantly higher for the left than the right hand. These findings are in line with the principle of "inverse effectiveness", implying that processing of bimodally presented stimuli is particularly enhanced when the unimodal stimuli are weak. This applies also when right-handed subjects see and simultaneously touch unfamiliar objects with their non-dominant left hand. Thus, the fMRI signal in the left LOC and aCER induced by visuo-haptic stimulation is dependent on which hand was employed for haptic exploration., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The car dependence of people living in contemporary cities is a major concern for policy makers, who often find it difficult to persuade people into more sustainable transport modes. By contrast, recent insights from neuroscience have shown that a broad spectrum of behaviors can become habitual and, thus, resistant to change. Here, we outline the potential of collaboration between neuroscience and human geography aiming at a better understanding of habits that determine everyday commuting routines., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Human neuroimaging studies suggest that neural cue reactivity is strongly associated with indices of drug use, including addiction severity and treatment success. However, little is known about factors that modulate cue reactivity. The goal of this review, in which we survey published fMRI and PET studies on drug cue reactivity in cocaine, alcohol, and tobacco cigarette users, is to highlight major factors that modulate brain reactivity to drug cues. First, we describe cue reactivity paradigms used in neuroimaging research and outline the brain circuits that underlie cue reactivity. We then discuss major factors that have been shown to modulate cue reactivity and review specific evidence as well as outstanding questions related to each factor. Building on previous model-building reviews on the topic, we then outline a simplified model that includes the key modulatory factors and a tentative ranking of their relative impact. We conclude with a discussion of outstanding challenges and future research directions, which can inform future neuroimaging studies as well as the design of treatment and prevention programs., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Rationale: Behavioral experiments have demonstrated that the sensory modality of presentation modulates drug cue reactivity., Objectives: The present study on nicotine addiction tested whether neural responses to smoking cues are modulated by the sensory modality of stimulus presentation., Methods: We measured brain activation using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in 15 smokers and 15 nonsmokers while they viewed images of smoking paraphernalia and control objects and while they touched the same objects without seeing them., Results: Haptically presented, smoking-related stimuli induced more pronounced neural cue reactivity than visual cues in the left dorsal striatum in smokers compared to nonsmokers. The severity of nicotine dependence correlated positively with the preference for haptically explored smoking cues in the left inferior parietal lobule/somatosensory cortex, right fusiform gyrus/inferior temporal cortex/cerebellum, hippocampus/parahippocampal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, and supplementary motor area., Conclusions: These observations are in line with the hypothesized role of the dorsal striatum for the expression of drug habits and the well-established concept of drug-related automatized schemata, since haptic perception is more closely linked to the corresponding object-specific action pattern than visual perception. Moreover, our findings demonstrate that with the growing severity of nicotine dependence, brain regions involved in object perception, memory, self-processing, and motor control exhibit an increasing preference for haptic over visual smoking cues. This difference was not found for control stimuli. Considering the sensory modality of the presented cues could serve to develop more reliable fMRI-specific biomarkers, more ecologically valid experimental designs, and more effective cue-exposure therapies of addiction.

Neuroimaging studies on cue reactivity have substantially contributed to the understanding of addiction. In the majority of studies drug cues were presented in the visual modality. However, exposure to conditioned cues in real life occurs often simultaneously in more than one sensory modality. Therefore, multisensory cues should elicit cue reactivity more consistently than unisensory stimuli and increase the ecological validity and the reliability of brain activation measurements. This review includes the data from 44 whole-brain functional neuroimaging studies with a total of 1168 subjects (812 patients and 356 controls). Correlations between neural cue reactivity and clinical covariates such as craving have been reported significantly more often for multisensory than unisensory cues in the motor cortex, insula and posterior cingulate cortex. Thus, multisensory drug cues are particularly effective in revealing brain-behavior relationships in neurocircuits of addiction responsible for motivation, craving awareness and self-related processing., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Human neuroplasticity of multisensory integration has been studied mainly in the context of natural or artificial training situations in healthy subjects. However, regular smokers also offer the opportunity to assess the impact of intensive daily multisensory interactions with smoking-related objects on the neural correlates of crossmodal object processing. The present functional magnetic resonance imaging study revealed that smokers show a comparable visuo-haptic integration pattern for both smoking paraphernalia and control objects in the left lateral occipital complex, a region playing a crucial role in crossmodal object recognition. Moreover, the degree of nicotine dependence correlated positively with the magnitude of visuo-haptic integration in the left lateral occipital complex (LOC) for smoking-associated but not for control objects. In contrast, in the left LOC non-smokers displayed a visuo-haptic integration pattern for control objects, but not for smoking paraphernalia. This suggests that prolonged smoking-related multisensory experiences in smokers facilitate the merging of visual and haptic inputs in the lateral occipital complex for the respective stimuli. Studying clinical populations who engage in compulsive activities may represent an ecologically valid approach to investigating the neuroplasticity of multisensory integration., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The study of Wagner et al. (J Neurosci 31: 894-898, 2011) reveals the neural correlates of spontaneously activated action representations in smokers when subjects watch movie characters smoke. We stress the importance of differentiating how these representations are activated: while the anterior intraparietal sulcus and inferior frontal gyrus are part of the mirror neuron system of smokers, the middle frontal gyrus, premotor cortex, and superior parietal lobule represent the smoking-related tool use skills and action knowledge activated by smoking paraphernalia.

The processing of visual and haptic inputs, occurring either separately or jointly, is crucial for everyday-life object recognition, and has been a focus of recent neuroimaging research. Previously, visuohaptic convergence has been mostly investigated with matching-task paradigms. However, much less is known about visuohaptic convergence in the absence of additional task demands. We conducted two functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments in which subjects actively touched and/or viewed unfamiliar object stimuli without any additional task demands. In addition, we performed two control experiments with audiovisual and audiohaptic stimulation to examine the specificity of the observed visuohaptic convergence effects. We found robust visuohaptic convergence in bilateral lateral occipital cortex and anterior cerebellum. In contrast, neither the anterior cerebellum nor the lateral occipital cortex showed any involvement in audiovisual or audiohaptic convergence, indicating that multisensory convergence in these regions is specifically geared to visual and haptic inputs. These data suggest that in humans the lateral occipital cortex and the anterior cerebellum play an important role in visuohaptic processing even in the absence of additional task demands.

Research on the psychological and neuronal underpinnings of addiction has concentrated mostly on affective, motivational, learning, and executive processes and the brain regions subserving these functions. In contrast, sensory and motor aspects of addiction have largely been neglected even though they may be highly relevant for the development and preservation of addiction. The aim of the present review is to emphasize the significance of sensory and motor processes for the better understanding and treatment of addiction. We focus on research investigating substance-related addictions and on brain imaging studies in humans that have assessed the contribution of cortical and cerebellar systems to sensory and motor mechanisms of addiction. Activations of sensory and motor brain regions in response to drug-associated cues can predict relapse and correlate with craving, severity of dependence and automatized behavioral reactions towards drug-related stimuli. We propose a model of how sensory and motor processes might be involved in the different stages of addiction., (Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)