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Background: While spasticity is commonly treated with oral agents or botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injection, these treatments have not been systematically compared.Methods: This study performed a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to compare injection of BoNT-Type A into spastic upper limb muscles versus oral tizanidine (TZD), or placebo, in 60 subjects with upper-limb spasticity due to stroke or traumatic brain injury (TBI). Wrist flexors were systematically injected, while other upper limb muscles were injected as per investigator judgement. Participants were randomised into three groups: (1) intramuscular BoNT plus oral placebo; (2) oral TZD plus intramuscular placebo; (3) intramuscular placebo plus oral placebo. The primary outcome was the difference in change in wrist flexor modified Ashworth score (MAS) between groups. Other outcome measures included MAS at elbow and finger joints, Disability Assessment Scale (DAS) and adverse events (AE).Results: BoNT produced greater tone reduction than TZD or placebo in finger and wrist flexors at week 3 (p<0.001 vs TZD; p<0.02 vs placebo) and 6 (p = 0.001 vs TZD; p = 0.08 vs placebo), and greater improvement in the cosmesis domain of the DAS at week 6 (p<0.01). TZD was not superior to placebo in tone reduction at either time point (p>or=0.09). The incidence of AE related to study treatment was higher with TZD than in the BoNT (p<0.01) or placebo groups (p = 0.001).Conclusions: BoNT is safer and more effective than TZD in reducing tone and disfigurement in upper-extremity spasticity, and may be considered as first-line therapy for this disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Classification of traumatic brain injury (TBI) severity guides management and contributes to determination of prognosis. Common indicators of TBI severity include Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores, length of coma (LOC) and duration of post-traumatic amnesia (PTA).Objective: To compare GCS, LOC and PTA by examining distributions and intercorrelations and develop multivariable linear regression models for estimating LOC and PTA duration.Methods: Prospective study of 519 of 614 consecutive patients with TBI. Indices of TBI severity studied were GCS, LOC, PTA and PTA-LOC (the interval from return of command-following to return of orientation). Candidate predictor variables for estimation of LOC, PTA and PTA-LOC intervals were age, years of education, year of injury (before 1997 vs 1997 or later), GCS, LOC (for PTA and PTA-LOC), pupillary responsiveness, type of injury, CT pathology and intracranial operations.Results: Although there was a severity/response relationship between GCS and LOC, PTA and PTA-LOC intervals, there was overlap in these intervals between GCS severity categories. Age, year of injury, GCS, pupillary responsiveness and CT pathology were predictive of LOC. Age, years of education, year of injury, GCS, LOC, pupillary responsiveness and intracranial operations were predictive of PTA duration. Age, years of education, year of injury, GCS, LOC and pupillary responsiveness were predictive of PTA-LOC. GCS and LOC effects were influenced by age.Conclusions: Predictors for estimating LOC, PTA and PTA-LOC intervals were determined and simple equations were developed. These equations will be helpful to clinicians, researchers and those counselling family members of patients with TBI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Measurement of the duration of post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) is common practice, serving as an important index of the severity of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and a predictor of functional outcome. However, controversy exists regarding the nature of PTA; some studies indicate that it is a confusional state with symptoms that extend beyond disorientation and amnesia.Objective: To evaluate the contribution of the severity of acute confusion 1 month after TBI to prediction of employment at 1 year after injury, comparing it with PTA duration.Methods: Prospective study involving 171 participants with complete data, who met the study criteria, from 228 consecutive TBI Model System admissions. Outcome measures included weekly administration of the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98 (DelRS-R98) to measure the severity of acute confusion. Evaluations closest to 1 month after injury were used for study purposes. Duration of PTA was defined as the interval from injury until two consecutive Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test scores of > or = 76 were obtained within a period of 24-72 h. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression were used to predict employment status at 1 year after injury.Results: Age, education and DelRS-R98 were significant predictors accounting for 34% of outcome variance. Individuals with greater confusion severity at 1 month after injury, older age and lower levels of education were less likely to be employed at 1 year after injury. Severity of confusion was more strongly associated with employment outcome (r(s) = -0.39) than was PTA duration (r(s) = -0.34).Conclusions: In addition to demographic indices, severity of acute confusion makes a unique contribution to predicting late outcome after TBI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Impaired self-awareness (ISA) is common among patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and contributes to poorer functional outcome. There is keen interest in improving the understanding of this disorder as the neuroanatomic substrate of posttraumatic ISA is poorly understood. OBJECTIVE: Determine whether (1) greater number of brain lesions, (2) greater volume of right hemisphere lesions, or (3) greater volume of frontal lesions is associated with greater levels of ISA after TBI. DESIGN: Prospective, observational study. PARTICIPANTS: Ninety-one TBI admissions to one of 2 National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research TBI Model System (TBIMS) programs. Subjects met TBIMS inclusion criteria plus (1) resolution of posttraumatic amnesia (PTA) prior to rehabilitation discharge and (2) initial postinjury computerized tomography (CT) scan available as a hard copy and as an electronic file. METHODS: CT scan lesions outlined by a board-certified neuroradiologist were measured using NIH Image, and resulting calculated lesion volumes/scan variables compared against demographic characteristics, TBI severity variables, and ISA variables measured by the Awareness Questionnaire (AQ) at the time of PTA resolution. RESULTS: Most subjects (78%) had at least 1 lesion on emergent CT, and contusion volumes varied in all regions of interest. Patients rated their functioning as more intact on the AQ than ratings of treating clinicians, consistent with ISA. Greater injury severity was associated with a greater degree of ISA. Multivariable linear regression revealed that, after adjustment for other predictors, the number of brain lesions was predictive of degree of ISA. Right hemisphere contusion or frontal lobe contusion volumes, however, were not predictive of degree of ISA. CONCLUSIONS: ISA was significantly associated with the number, but not with location or volume of focal lesions early after TBI. Posttraumatic ISA may reflect disruption in the integrated operation of broadly distributed neural networks, with lesion burden in any specific region being less relevant than disruption across multiple regions. Further imaging research is warranted to confirm these findings and to provide insight into the distributed networks required for self-awareness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: Investigate the impact of race on productivity outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and evaluate the influence of confounding factors on this relationship. DESIGN: Inception cohort of 1083 adults with TBI for whom 1-year productivity follow-up data were available. RESULTS: Univariable logistic regression indicated that race was a significant predictor of productivity outcome after TBI. African Americans were 2.76 times more likely to be nonproductive than whites and other racial minorities were 1.92 times more likely to be nonproductive than whites. Multivariable logistic regression analyses revealed that the effect of race on employability was influenced by confounds with preinjury productivity, education level, and cause of injury. After adjustment for other predictors, African Americans were 2.00 times more likely to be nonproductive than whites and other racial minorities were 2.08 times more likely to be nonproductive than whites. The multivariable logistic regression model with all predictors except race accounted for 39% of the variability in productivity outcome (R2-Nagelkerke=0.39), whereas the full logistic regression model including race accounted for 41% of the variability in productivity outcome (R2-Nagelkerke=0.41); a difference of only 2%. CONCLUSION: Any effect of race on productivity is significantly influenced by confounding with preinjury productivity, education level, and cause of injury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

States of severely impaired consciousness (SIC) are characterized by cognitive and motor limitations.This case report describes a 45-year-old female with impaired consciousness who began to `walk'. Sheinitially presented to the hospital unresponsive and was subsequently diagnosed with metabolic encephalopathydue to severe hypoglycaemia. Traditional indices of consciousness indicated a low level ofresponsiveness; however, during physical therapy, she displayed reciprocal walking movements whenlifted to a standing position by two therapists. Despite her ability to walk increased distances during andafter neurorehabilitation, she was unable to consistently demonstrate responses indicative of higherlevels of consciousness. This case illustrates the challenge of rating patients with limited behaviouralrepertoire using established measures of impaired consciousness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of techniques attempt to objectively quantify various clinical characteristics associated with spastic hypertonia and related motor disorders. These range in cost, complexity, physiologic basis of measured response, and invasiveness. With a greater range of treatment options for spasticity and an increase in the number of centers participating in studies of interventions for spasticity, published reports reflect increasing use of objective quantification techniques. We review studies that highlight the potential utility of neurophysiologic techniques, including the H-reflex, F-wave, and flexion withdrawal reflex, in the objective evaluation of response to intrathecal baclofen administration. The accumulated knowledge suggests that neurophysiologic evaluation is useful for assessing spinal cord responsiveness, and we recommend it as an adjunct to clinical evaluation when judging the overall effectiveness of intrathecal baclofen administration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There is a limited evidence-base describing clinical features of delirium in youth. What is known is largely extrapolated from studies of adults or samples with heterogeneous etiologies. It is unclear if the symptoms experienced by adolescents differ from those experienced by adults, or the degree to which delirium impacts the ability of adolescents to return to school or work., Objective: To describe delirium symptomatology among adolescents following a severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Symptoms were compared by adolescent delirium status and across age groups. Delirium and its relationship with adolescent employability 1 year post-injury was also examined., Design: Exploratory secondary analysis of prospectively collected data., Setting: Free-standing rehabilitation hospital., Patients: Severely injured TBI Model Systems neurorehabilitation admissions (n = 243; median Glasgow Coma Scale = 7). The sample was divided into three age groups (adolescents, 16-21 years, n = 63; adults 22-49 years, n = 133; older adults ≥50 years, n = 47)., Interventions: Not applicable., Measures: We assessed patients using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) diagnostic criteria and the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised 98 (DRS-R-98). The employability item from the Disability Rating Scale was the primary 1-year outcome., Results: Most items on the DRS-R-98 differentiated delirious from non-delirious adolescents. Only "delusions" differed among age groups. Among adolescents, delirium status 1 month post-TBI provided acceptable classification of employability prediction 1 year later (area under the curve [AUC]: 0.80, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.69-0.91, p < .001). Delirium symptom severity (AUC: 0.86, 95% CI: 0.68-1.03, SE: 0.09; p < .001) and days of post-traumatic amnesia (AUC: 0.85, 95% CI: 0.68-1.01, SE: 0.08; p < .001) provided excellent prediction of outcomes for TBI patients in delirium., Conclusions: Delirium symptomatology was similar among age groups and useful in differentiating the delirium status within the adolescent TBI group. Delirium and symptom severity at 1 month post-TBI were highly predictive of poor outcomes. Findings from this study support the utility of DRS-R-98 at 1 month post-injury to inform treatment and planning., (© 2023 American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation.)

In response to the need to better define the natural history of emerging consciousness after traumatic brain injury and to better describe the characteristics of the condition commonly labeled posttraumatic amnesia, a case definition and diagnostic criteria for the posttraumatic confusional state (PTCS) were developed. This project was completed by the Confusion Workgroup of the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine Brain Injury Interdisciplinary Special Interest group. The case definition was informed by an exhaustive literature review and expert opinion of workgroup members from multiple disciplines. The workgroup reviewed 2466 abstracts and extracted evidence from 44 articles. Consensus was reached through teleconferences, face-to-face meetings, and 3 rounds of modified Delphi voting. The case definition provides detailed description of PTCS (1) core neurobehavioral features, (2) associated neurobehavioral features, (3) functional implications, (4) exclusion criteria, (5) lower boundary, and (6) criteria for emergence. Core neurobehavioral features include disturbances of attention, orientation, and memory as well as excessive fluctuation. Associated neurobehavioral features include emotional and behavioral disturbances, sleep-wake cycle disturbance, delusions, perceptual disturbances, and confabulation. The lower boundary distinguishes PTCS from the minimally conscious state, while upper boundary is marked by significant improvement in the 4 core and 5 associated features. Key research goals are establishment of cutoffs on assessment instruments and determination of levels of behavioral function that distinguish persons in PTCS from those who have emerged to the period of continued recovery., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objectives: To examine the prevalence, onset threshold, and response magnitude of stretch reflex response (SRR) in the knee extensors and flexors before and after an intrathecal baclofen (ITB) bolus injection in patients with moderate-to-severe hypertonia., Materials and Methods: SRRs were elicited by reciprocal passive knee extension/flexion movements at preset angular velocities of 5, 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300°/s using an isokinetic dynamometer and recorded with surface electromyographic (EMG) electrodes placed over the knee extensors and flexors in 53 neurologic patients before and at 2.5 and 5 hours after an ITB injection via lumbar puncture. Outcome measures included the number of patients with presence/absence of SRRs, the number of SRRs per session, SRR onset threshold angle and velocity, and response magnitudes (peak EMG and area under the EMG curve) for each muscle. Pre-post comparisons were completed using the Fisher's exact and Wilcoxon signed rank tests., Results: For both knee extensors and flexors, the proportion of patients with present SRRs (p < 0.0001) and the number of SRRs per session (p ≤ 0.027) decreased from pre- to post-ITB. The threshold velocity significantly increased post-injection in both muscles (p ≤ 0.001) without significant changes in the threshold angle. The response magnitudes significantly decreased in the knee extensors (p ≤ 0.016) but not the knee flexors after the injection., Conclusions: The prevalence and threshold velocity of SRR emerged as the most robust and practical parameters for assessing hyperreflexia during ITB bolus trial that can complement clinical assessment of muscle hypertonia., (© 2020 International Neuromodulation Society.)

While the duration and severity of post-traumatic confusional state (PTCS) after traumatic brain injury have well-established implications for long-term outcomes, little is known about the underlying pathophysiology and their role in functional outcomes. Here, we analyzed the delta-to-alpha frequency band power ratios (DAR) from localized scalp areas derived from standard resting electroencephalographic (EEG) data recorded during eyes closed state in 49 patients diagnosed with PTCS. Higher global, occipital, parietal, and temporal DARs were significantly associated with the severity of PTCS, as assessed by the Confusion Assessment Protocol (CAP) observed on the same day, after controlling for injury severity. Also, occipital DARs were positively associated with both the CAP disorientation score 2, and the CAP symptom fluctuation score 4, after controlling for injury severity (n = 35). Posterior DARs were significantly associated with Functional Independence Measure-cognitive subscale average score at 1 (n = 45), 2 (n = 42), and 5 (n = 34) year(s) post-injury. The associations at 1 (temporal left) and 2 (parietal left) years survive after controlling for an injury severity index. Our finding that posterior DAR is a marker of PTCS and functional recovery post-injury, likely reflects functional de-afferentation of the posterior medial complex (PMC) in PTCS. Altered function of the PMC is proposed as a unifying physiological mechanism underlying both acute and chronic confusional states. We discuss the relationship of these findings to electrophysiological markers associated with disorders of consciousness.

Objective: To characterize the concurrent activation of rectus femoris (RF) and medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscles (extensor coactivation) during gait in subjects with pronounced resting hypertonia after acquired brain injury (ABI) and examine changes after intrathecal baclofen (ITB) bolus injection., Methods: Magnitude and duration of extensor coactivation during different phases of gait were assessed by recording gait kinematics and activity in bilateral RF and MG muscles in 18 controls and 18 ABI subjects before and at 2, 4, and 6h after a 50-μg ITB injection., Results: Compared to controls, the magnitude of extensor coactivation was significantly increased in all phases of gait except the single support (p≤0.005), while the duration was significantly prolonged throughout (p≤0.001) in both legs of ABI subjects. After ITB bolus, only the duration of extensor coactivation significantly shortened in the more-affected leg during the late double-support and early swing (p≤0.026)., Conclusions: Extensor coactivation is bilaterally exaggerated during gait in ABI subjects. ITB bolus effectively shortens the extensor coactivation in the more-affected leg during the pre-swing and early swing phases of gait., Significance: Shortening of the prolonged extensor coactivation during gait may serve as an index of neurophysiological response to ITB bolus injection in subjects with ABI., (Copyright © 2017 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To update the 2008 American Academy of Neurology (AAN) guidelines regarding botulinum neurotoxin for blepharospasm, cervical dystonia (CD), headache, and adult spasticity., Methods: We searched the literature for relevant articles and classified them using 2004 AAN criteria., Results and Recommendations: Blepharospasm: OnabotulinumtoxinA (onaBoNT-A) and incobotulinumtoxinA (incoBoNT-A) are probably effective and should be considered (Level B). AbobotulinumtoxinA (aboBoNT-A) is possibly effective and may be considered (Level C). CD: AboBoNT-A and rimabotulinumtoxinB (rimaBoNT-B) are established as effective and should be offered (Level A), and onaBoNT-A and incoBoNT-A are probably effective and should be considered (Level B). Adult spasticity: AboBoNT-A, incoBoNT-A, and onaBoNT-A are established as effective and should be offered (Level A), and rimaBoNT-B is probably effective and should be considered (Level B), for upper limb spasticity. AboBoNT-A and onaBoNT-A are established as effective and should be offered (Level A) for lower-limb spasticity. Headache: OnaBoNT-A is established as effective and should be offered to increase headache-free days (Level A) and is probably effective and should be considered to improve health-related quality of life (Level B) in chronic migraine. OnaBoNT-A is established as ineffective and should not be offered for episodic migraine (Level A) and is probably ineffective for chronic tension-type headaches (Level B)., (© 2016 American Academy of Neurology.)

Background: Intrathecal baclofen (ITB) bolus injection effectively decreases spinal excitability but the impact on lower limb muscle activation during gait has not been thoroughly investigated., Objective: Examine activation of medial gastrocnemius (MG) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles during gait before and after ITB bolus injection in patients with resting hypertonia after acquired brain injury., Methods: Lower extremity Ashworth score, temporospatial gait parameters, characteristics of the linear relationship between electromyogram (EMG) and lengthening velocity (LV) in MG during stance, and the duration and magnitude of TA-MG coactivation were assessed before and at 2, 4, and 6 hours after a 50-µg ITB injection via lumbar puncture in 8 hemorrhagic stroke and 11 traumatic brain injury subjects., Results: Temporospatial gait parameters did not significantly differ across the evaluation points (P ≥ .170). However, Ashworth score (P < .001), frequency and gain of significant positive EMG-LV slope (P ≤ .020), and duration of TA-MG coactivation (P ≤ .013) significantly decreased in the more-affected leg after ITB bolus. EMG changes were not significantly different between patients who did (n = 10) and did not (n = 9) increase gait speed after the injection. The timing of the largest decrease in Ashworth score and the largest decrease in EMG parameters coincided in 36% of cases, on average., Conclusions: ITB bolus injection alters the activation of MG and TA during gait. However, the changes in muscle activation are not closely related to the changes in gait speed or resting muscle hypertonia. The analysis of ankle muscle activation during gait better characterizes the response to ITB bolus injection than gait kinematics., (© The Author(s) 2014.)

Objectives: To (1) determine factors associated with psychotic-type symptoms in persons with moderate or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) during early recovery and (2) investigate the prognostic significance of early psychotic-type symptoms for patient outcome., Setting: Acute neurorehabilitation inpatient unit., Participants: A total of 168 persons with moderate or severe TBI were admitted for inpatient rehabilitation. Of these, 107 had psychotic-type symptoms on at least 1 examination. One-year productivity outcome was available for 87 of the 107 participants., Design: Prospective, inception cohort, observational study., Main Measures: Confusion Assessment Protocol, productivity outcome at 1 year postinjury., Results: Presence of sleep disturbance, a shorter interval from admission to assessment, and greater cognitive impairment were associated with a greater incidence of psychotic-type symptoms. Younger age, more years of education, and lower frequency and severity of psychotic-type symptoms were associated with a greater likelihood of favorable productivity outcome., Conclusions: We identified risk factors for the occurrence of psychotic-type symptoms and extended previous findings regarding the significance of these symptoms for outcome after TBI. These findings suggest that improved sleep in early TBI recovery may decrease the occurrence of psychotic-type symptoms.

Objective: To compare the rate and nature of rehospitalization in a cohort of patients enrolled in the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems (TBIMS) who have disorders of consciousness (DOC) at the time of rehabilitation admission with those in persons with moderate or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) but without DOC at rehabilitation admission., Design: Prospective observational study., Setting: Inpatient rehabilitation within TBIMS with annual follow-up., Participants: Of 9028 persons enrolled from 1988 to 2009 (N=9028), 366 from 20 centers met criteria for DOC at rehabilitation admission and follow-up data, and another 5132 individuals met criteria for moderate (n=769) or severe TBI (n=4363)., Interventions: Not applicable., Main Outcome Measures: Participants and/or their family members completed follow-up data collection including questions about frequency and nature of rehospitalizations at 1 year postinjury. For the subset of participants with DOC, additional follow-up was conducted at 2 and 5 years postinjury., Results: The DOC group demonstrated an overall 2-fold increase in rehospitalization in the first year postinjury relative to those with moderate or severe TBI without DOC. Persons with DOC at rehabilitation admission have a higher rate of rehospitalization across several categories than persons with moderate or severe TBI., Conclusions: Although the specific details of rehospitalization are unknown, greater injury severity resulting in DOC status on rehabilitation admission has long-term implications. Data highlight the need for a longitudinal approach to patient management., (Copyright © 2013 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To characterize the 5-year outcomes of patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) not following commands when admitted to acute inpatient rehabilitation., Design: Secondary analysis of prospectively collected data from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research-funded Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems (TBIMS)., Setting: Inpatient rehabilitation hospitals participating in the TBIMS program., Participants: Patients (N=108) with TBI not following commands at admission to acute inpatient rehabilitation were divided into 2 groups (early recovery: followed commands before discharge [n=72]; late recovery: did not follow commands before discharge [n=36])., Interventions: Not applicable., Main Outcome Measures: FIM items., Results: For the early recovery group, depending on the FIM item, 8% to 21% of patients were functioning independently at discharge, increasing to 56% to 85% by 5 years postinjury. The proportion functioning independently increased from discharge to 1 year, 1 to 2 years, and 2 to 5 years. In the late recovery group, depending on the FIM item, 19% to 36% of patients were functioning independently by 5 years postinjury. The proportion of independent patients increased significantly from discharge to 1 year and from 1 to 2 years, but not from 2 to 5 years., Conclusions: Substantial proportions of patients admitted to acute inpatient rehabilitation before following commands recover independent functioning over as long as 5 years, particularly if they begin to follow commands before hospital discharge., (Copyright © 2013 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To prospectively characterize the prevalence, course, and impact of acute sleep abnormality among traumatic brain injury (TBI) neurorehabilitation admissions., Design: Prospective observational study., Setting: Freestanding rehabilitation hospital., Participants: Primarily severe TBI (median emergency department Glasgow Coma Scale [GCS] score=7; N=205) patients who were mostly men (71%) and white (68%) were evaluated during acute neurorehabilitation., Interventions: None., Main Outcome Measure: Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98 (DelRS-R98) was administered weekly throughout rehabilitation hospitalization. DelRS-R98 item 1 was used to classify severity of sleep-wake cycle disturbance (SWCD) as none, mild, moderate, or severe. SWCD ratings were analyzed both serially and at 1 month postinjury., Results: For the entire sample, 66% (mild to severe) had SWCD at 1 month postinjury. The course of the SWCD using a subset (n=152) revealed that 84% had SWCD on rehabilitation admission, with 63% having moderate to severe ratings (median, 24d postinjury). By the third serial exam (median, 35d postinjury), 59% remained with SWCD, and 28% had moderate to severe ratings. Using general linear modeling and adjusting for age, emergency department GCS score, and days postinjury, presence of moderate to severe SWCD at 1 month postinjury made significant contributions in predicting duration of posttraumatic amnesia (P<.01) and rehabilitation hospital length of stay (P<.01)., Conclusions: Results suggest that sleep abnormalities after TBI are prevalent and decrease over time. However, a high percent remained with SWCD throughout the course of rehabilitation intervention. Given the brevity of inpatient neurorehabilitation, future studies may explore targeting SWCD to improve early outcomes, such as cognitive functioning and economic impact, after TBI., (Copyright © 2013 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To examine the velocity-dependent change in medial gastrocnemius (MG) activity during the stance phase of gait in patients with moderate to severe resting hypertonia after stroke or traumatic brain injury (TBI)., Design: Cohort study., Setting: Motion analysis laboratory in a tertiary-care rehabilitation hospital., Participants: Convenience sample of patients with chronic TBI and stroke (n=11 each), and age- and sex-matched healthy controls (n=22)., Intervention: Not applicable., Main Outcome Measures: Frequency and gain (steepness) of positive (>0) and significant positive (>0 and goodness of fit P≤.05) electromyogram-lengthening velocity (EMG-LV) linear regression slope in MG during the stance phase of gait., Results: Positive and significant positive slopes were found significantly more often on the more affected (MA) than less affected (LA) side in patients with TBI but not stroke. Both the frequencies of positive and significant positive slopes on the MA side in patients with TBI were also significantly higher than in controls. However, neither the gain of positive nor significant positive EMG-LV slope was different between the MA and LA sides or in comparison with controls. Positive slope parameters were not related to Ashworth score on the MA side., Conclusions: The frequency and gain of positive EMG-lengthening slope did not effectively differentiate patients from controls, nor were they related to the resting muscle hypertonia. Motor output during MG lengthening in the stance phase of gait is apparently not exaggerated or related to resting hypertonia in patients with chronic TBI and stroke. Thus, changes in gait during stance cannot be ascribed to increased stretch reflex activity in MG muscle after acquired brain injury., (Copyright © 2012 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Assess spinal reflex excitability after increasing intrathecal baclofen (ITB) flow by manipulation of drug concentration and mode of administration., Methods: The effect of concentration was assessed by comparing changes in H-reflex (H/M ratio) 1-6h after a 50μg ITB bolus at 50μg/ml concentration administered manually via lumbar puncture (LP, duration 1-2min, n=27) to a 50μg bolus at 500μg/ml concentration programmed through the pump and delivered via intrathecal catheter (IC, duration 10min) above simple continuous dose (25-100μg/day, n=16). The effect of mode of administration was assessed by comparing peak changes in H/M ratio after 50μg IC bolus above simple continuous dose (complex continuous mode, n=27) to simple continuous mode only (n=22) at equivalent daily doses (75-150μg/day)., Results: H/M decrease was faster and overall greater after LP than IC bolus (mean 1-h 77% vs. 63%, p=0.012; 1-6h 91% vs. 82%, p<0.001, respectively). H/M ratio also decreased significantly more with complex (91%) than simple continuous mode of administration (78%, p=0.025)., Conclusions: Lower ITB concentration and complex continuous mode of administration lead to greater decrease in H/M ratio., Significance: Decreased spinal reflex excitability after adjustment of drug and pump parameters to increase ITB flow may result in better clinical response., (Copyright © 2012 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Scant research has examined the relationship between posttraumatic confusion (PTC) and cooperation during rehabilitation from moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. In this study, PTC and cooperation were examined in a prospective cohort of 74 inpatients with traumatic Brain Injury. Confusion was measured using the Confusion Assessment Protocol. Cooperation was rated on a 0-100 scale by rehabilitation therapists. Using multiple regression analysis, PTC significantly predicted cooperation (R(2) = 0.33, P < 0.001). Age at injury, education, days since injury, and Glasgow Come Scale scores were not significant predictors. Bivariate analyses indicated that four PTC symptoms significantly predicted poorer cooperation: daytime hypersomnolence (ρ = -0.42, P < 0.001), agitation (ρ = -0.39, P = 0.001), psychosis (ρ = -0.39, P = 0.001), and cognitive impairment (ρ = -0.24, P = 0.04). Results provide empirical support that PTC is associated with poorer cooperation and empirical justification for interventions to manage confusion during early recovery from traumatic brain injury.

Objective: Examine (1) coactivation between tibialis anterior (TA) and medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscles during stance phase of gait in patients with moderate-to-severe resting hypertonia after stroke or traumatic brain injury (TBI) and (2) the relationship between coactivation and stretch velocity-dependent increase in MG activity., Methods: Gait and surface EMG were recorded from patients with stroke or TBI (11 each) and corresponding healthy controls (n=11) to determine the magnitude and duration of TA-MG coactivation. The frequency and gain of positive (>0) and significant positive (p<0.05) EMG-lengthening velocity (EMG-LV) slope in MG were related to coactivation parameters., Results: The magnitude of coactivation was increased on the more-affected (MA) side, whereas the duration was prolonged on the less-affected (LA) side of both stroke and TBI patients. The difference reached significance during the initial and late double support. The magnitude of coactivation positively correlated with the gain of significant positive EMG-LV slope in TBI patients., Conclusions: Increased coactivation between TA and MG during initial and late double support is a unique feature of gait in stroke and TBI patients with muscle hypertonia., Significance: Increased coactivation may represent an adaptation to compensate for impaired stability during step transition after stroke and TBI., (Copyright © 2012 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Few studies address the course of recovery from prolonged disorders of consciousness (DOC) after severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). This study examined acute and long-term outcomes of persons with DOC admitted to acute inpatient rehabilitation within the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) TBI Model Systems Programs (TBIMS). Of 9028 persons enrolled from 1988 to 2009, 396 from 20 centers met study criteria. Participants were primarily male (73%), Caucasian (67%), injured in motor vehicle collision (66%), with a median age of 28, and emergency department Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 3. Participant status was evaluated at acute rehabilitation admission and discharge and at 1, 2, and 5 years post-injury. During inpatient rehabilitation, 268 of 396 (68%) regained consciousness and 91 (23%) emerged from post-traumatic amnesia (PTA). Participants demonstrated significant improvements on GCS (z=16.135, p≤0.001) and Functional Independence Measure (FIM) (z=15.584, p≤0.001) from rehabilitation admission (median GCS=9; FIM=18) to discharge (median GCS=14; FIM=43). Of 337 with at least one follow-up visit, 28 (8%) had died by 2.1 years (mean) after discharge. Among survivors, 66 (21%) improved to become capable of living without in-house supervision, and 63 demonstrated employment potential using the Disability Rating Scale (DRS). Participants with follow-up data at 1, 2, and 5 years post-injury (n=108) demonstrated significant improvement across all follow-up evaluations on the FIM Cognitive and Supervision Rating Scale (p<0.01). Significant improvements were observed on the DRS and FIM Motor at 1 and 2 years post-injury (p<0.01). Persons with DOC at the time of admission to inpatient rehabilitation showed functional improvement throughout early recovery and in years post-injury.

Background: Duration of post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) correlates with global outcomes and functional disability. Russell proposed the use of PTA duration intervals as an index for classification of traumatic brain injury (TBI) severity. Alternative duration-based schemata have been recently proposed as better predictors of outcome to the commonly cited Russell intervals., Objective: Validate a TBI severity classification model (Mississippi intervals) of PTA duration anchored to late productivity outcome, and compare sensitivity against the Russell intervals., Methods: Prospective observational data on TBI Model System participants (n=3846) with known or imputed PTA duration during acute hospitalisation. Productivity status at 1-year postinjury was used to compare predicted outcomes using the Mississippi and Russell classification intervals. Logistic regression model-generated curves were used to compare the performance of the classification intervals by assessing the area under the curve (AUC); the highest AUC represented the best-performing model., Results: All severity variables evaluated were individually associated with return to productivity at 1&emsp14;year (RTP1). Age was significantly associated with RTP1; however, younger patients had a different association than older patients. After adjustment for individually significant variables, the odds of RTP1 decrease by 14% with every additional week of PTA duration (95% CI 12% to 17%; p<0.0001). The AUC for the Russell intervals was significantly smaller than the Mississippi intervals., Conclusions: PTA duration is an important predictor of late productivity outcome after TBI. The Mississippi PTA interval classification model is a valid predictor of productivity at 1&emsp14;year postinjury and provides a more sensitive categorisation of PTA values than the Russell intervals.

Clinical trials demonstrate that onabotulinumtoxinA reduces upper limb post-stroke spasticity, with therapeutic response influenced by injected dose. Individual studies provide limited insight regarding muscle group-specific dose-response relationships. Our objective was to characterize dose-response relationships between onabotulinumtoxinA and muscle tone in specific upper limb muscles. Individual patient data from seven multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials were pooled. Of 544 post-stroke patients enrolled, 362 received onabotulinumtoxinA and 182 received placebo, injected into the flexor carpi radialis (FCR), flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU), flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS), flexor digitorum profundus (FDP), and/or biceps brachii (BB). Ashworth Scale score change at week 6 (AshworthCBL) was the primary outcome measure for muscle tone. For a broader analysis of response, AshworthCBL/onabotulinumtoxinA dosage relationships were characterized using three techniques: (1) AshworthCBL plotted as a function of onabotulinumtoxinA dose in Units (U) [dose-response curve]; (2) mean AshworthCBL per onabotulinumtoxinA dose depicting the responses seen with specific dose injection clusters/groups for each specific muscle group; and (3) onabotulinumtoxinA dose estimated to produce a mean 1-point decrease in AshworthCBL as an indicator of clinically meaningful benefit of treatment. Increasing onabotulinumtoxinA doses produced greater AshworthCBLs (muscle tone improvements). The maximal week 6 response (E(max)) model indicated a saturating dose-response relationship, with mean E(max) AshworthCBL values of -1.48, -1.48, -0.63, -0.77, and -0.61 in the FCR, FCU, FDS, FDP, and BB, respectively. OnabotulinumtoxinA doses estimated to produce a mean 1-point decrease in AshworthCBL were: 22.5U, 18.4U, 66.3U, 42.5U in the FCR, FCU, FDS, and FDP, respectively, and not determinable in the BB. These analyses demonstrate a saturating effect of greater muscle tone improvements with increasing onabotulinumtoxinA doses in post-stroke spasticity patients. These findings suggest potentially effective onabotulinumtoxinA doses in selected muscle groups in this study population., (Copyright © 2010 Movement Disorder Society.)

Background: Intrathecal baclofen (ITB) effectively reduces muscle hypertonia; however, associated complications influence its utility and acceptance., Objective: To systematically review the literature on procedure- and device-related complications associated with ITB infusion therapy for adult muscle hypertonia of spinal or cerebral origin., Methods: The authors searched the PubMed database for full-length articles published in English that reported ITB-associated complications in adults. Of 147 articles retrieved, 32 full-length manuscripts and 10 case reports were reviewed in detail., Results: Overall, 558 complications were reported after 1362 pump implants (0.41 per implant)., Method: s for characterizing complications varied greatly between studies, as did complication rates, ranging from 0 to 2.24 per implant. Of the 558 complications, 148 (27%) were related to surgical procedures, 39 (7%) to pump problems, and 369 (66%) to catheter malfunctions. The overall complication rate was higher for studies that followed patients for more than 18 months on average (mean 0.56/implant) versus studies with shorter follow-up (0.23/implant, P < .05). Although correlation between the number of implants and the number of complications was significant (r = .58), the goodness of linear fit was poor because of clusters with varied complication rates., Conclusions: Catheter problems are relatively common and more frequent than pump or surgical procedure complications after ITB pump implantation. Higher complication rates should be expected in centers that follow patients for a longer period of time. Standardized data collection and complication-reporting procedures along with appropriate training should be implemented in centers offering ITB treatment for management of muscle hypertonia.

Background: Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is a major cause of mortality and morbidity after traumatic brain injury (TBI). There is no consensus regarding appropriate screening, prophylaxis, or treatment during acute rehabilitation., Methods: This prospective observational study evaluated prophylactic anticoagulation during rehabilitation in patients with TBI aged 16 years or older admitted to 12 TBI Model Systems rehabilitation centers (July 2004-December 2007). After propensity score stratification within center, the odds ratio associated with incidence of symptomatic DVT or pulmonary embolism (PE) for patients who did and did not receive prophylactic anticoagulation was estimated using conditional logistic regression in patients who were not screened for DVT on rehabilitation admission or who screened negative; the analysis was repeated in these two subgroups., Results: Patients with identified DVTs at rehabilitation admission (n = 266) were excluded, leaving 1,897 patients: 1,002 screened negative, 895 unscreened; 932 received prophylactic anticoagulation, and 965 did not. Symptomatic DVT/PE was detected in 32 patients (15 of 932 [1.6%] with prophylaxis, 17 of 965 [1.8%] without). After propensity score adjustment, the odds ratio (95% confidence interval) for symptomatic DVT/PE with prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis was 0.80 (0.33-1.94) in the full analytic population and 0.46 (0.12-1.84) in the screened-negative subgroup. The only probable venous thromboembolism-related death occurred in the prophylactic anticoagulation group. Fewer new/expanded intracranial hemorrhages occurred among patients who received prophylactic anticoagulation., Conclusions: Prophylactic anticoagulation during rehabilitation seemed safe for TBI patients whose physicians deemed it appropriate, but did not conclusively reduce venous thromboembolism. Given the number of DVTs present before rehabilitation, screening and prophylaxis during acute care may be more important.

Unlabelled: Horn TS, Yablon SA, Chow JW, Lee JE, Stokic DS. Effect of intrathecal baclofen bolus injection on lower extremity joint range of motion during gait in patients with acquired brain injury., Objectives: To evaluate lower extremity joint range of motion (ROM) during gait before and after intrathecal baclofen (ITB) bolus administration, and to explore the relation between changes in ROM and concurrent changes in gait speed and muscle hypertonia., Design: Case series., Setting: Tertiary care rehabilitation center., Participants: Adults (N=28) with muscle hypertonia due to stroke, trauma, or anoxia., Interventions: 50-microg ITB bolus injection via lumbar puncture (75 and 100microg in 2 cases)., Main Outcome Measures: Ashworth score, self-selected gait speed, and sagittal plane ROMs in hip, knee, and ankle joints before and 2, 4, and 6 hours after ITB bolus., Results: A significant decrease in the mean Ashworth score on the more involved side (2.0 to 1.3) and an increase in gait speed (41 to 47cm/s) were noted at different intervals after ITB bolus injection. Ankle ROM significantly increased on the more involved (13 degrees to 15 degrees , P<.01) and less involved (22 degrees to 24 degrees , P<.05) sides. ROM significantly improved, significantly worsened, or showed no significant change in 42%, 34%, and 24% of individual joints, respectively. The peak change in ROM did not coincide with the peak decrease in Ashworth score. Peak changes in ROM and speed coincided more often (P<.001) in participants who increased gait speed after ITB bolus compared with those who decreased speed. The absolute change in ROM after ITB bolus injection correlated better with the concurrent changes in speed (r=.41, P<.001) than with the baseline speed (r=.18, P<.05)., Conclusions: ITB bolus injection produces variable changes in joint ROM during gait, with significant improvements in the ankles only. Timing and magnitude of peak changes in ROM are associated with concurrent changes in speed but not muscle hypertonia., (Copyright (c) 2010 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To characterize gait characteristics of adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and lower limb muscle hypertonia, distinguishing gait adaptations inherent to TBI motor impairment from those of healthy subjects walking at slower speed., Methods: Temporospatial and kinematic data of 31 patients with TBI (41 ± 30 months post-injury) walking at self-selected speed (free speed) were compared with 31 healthy subjects walking at free and very slow speeds using an optoelectronic motion analysis system., Results: All step parameters differed (p < 0.05) between more affected (MA) and less affected (LA) sides in TBI except foot angle and toe clearance. Significant differences existed between TBI and controls in most parameters regardless of speed. These differences frequently involved the LA side. In TBI, most temporospatial parameters significantly correlated with stride velocity, whereas the averaged lower limb Ashworth score on the MA side (2.1 ± 0.4) showed few significant correlations., Conclusions: Gait deviations in subjects with TBI and lower limb muscle hypertonia cannot be solely explained by slower walking. The preponderance of changes involving the LA side particularly suggests prevalent use of compensatory walking strategies. Temporospatial gait parameters are not closely related to static measures of muscle hypertonia after TBI.

Unlabelled: Sherer M, Yablon SA, Nakase-Richardson R. Patterns of recovery of posttraumatic confusional state in neurorehabilitation admissions after traumatic brain injury., Objective: To provide preliminary descriptions of patterns of resolution of symptoms of acute confusion after traumatic brain injury (TBI)., Design: Prospective, descriptive, cohort study., Setting: Inpatient neurorehabilitation unit., Participants: Patients (N=107) meeting criteria for posttraumatic confusional state at admission to inpatient rehabilitation., Interventions: Not applicable., Main Outcome Measure: Patterns of resolution of posttraumatic confusional state symptoms over the first 3 confusion assessment protocol evaluations for patients with mild, moderate, and severe confusion., Results: Posttraumatic confusional state symptoms resolving earliest were psychotic-type symptoms, decreased daytime arousal, and nighttime sleep disturbance. Fluctuation and cognitive impairment were the 2 most persistent symptoms. Seventy-three percent of patients showed improvement of 1 or more symptoms from the first to third evaluation. Confusion severity groups did not significantly differ on indices of injury severity (Glasgow Coma Scale score, time to follow commands) but did differ on functional status at discharge from inpatient rehabilitation., Conclusions: While posttraumatic confusional state is a heterogeneous disorder, there is a predictable pattern of symptom resolution. Differences in patients' confusion severity and patterns of symptoms may relate to differing underlying neural injury.

Intrathecal administration of baclofen is a well-established technique for modulating hypertonia secondary to upper motor neuron pathology. Despite the nearly 2 decades of widespread clinical use, this intervention presents many challenges to even experienced clinicians. The purpose of this clinical review is to describe some of the intricacies and subtleties of this treatment strategy. This narrative provides an overview of 3 topics: (1) an alternative methodology for intrathecal baclofen trials; (2) an algorithmic approach to troubleshooting intrathecal delivery systems; and (3) the utility of neurophysiologic assessments within various phases of intrathecal baclofen therapy.

Objective: Early investigations classified traumatic brain injury (TBI) severity according to posttraumatic amnesia (PTA) duration, designating "greater than 7 days" as the most severe. PTA durations of more than 7 days are common in neurorehabilitation populations. Moreover, no study has derived a PTA severity schema anchored to late outcome. The purpose of this study was to develop a PTA severity classification schema., Design: Prospective observational study., Setting: Rehabilitation hospital., Participants: Sample included TBI Model System participants (N=280) with known or imputed PTA duration during acute hospitalization and 1-year productivity status. Participants were primarily male (70%), median age of 27 years; and the most common mechanism of injury was motor vehicle collisions (79%). For study purposes, 4 injury severity groups were identified by observing differences in productivity associated with different PTA durations., Interventions: None., Main Outcome Measure: Productivity status at 1 year postinjury., Results: Fisher exact test comparisons revealed significant differences among 3 of the groups. Most individuals with PTA fewer than 14 days had favorable 1-year outcome (68% productive), whereas worse outcomes were associated with PTA more than 28 days (18% productive)., Conclusions: If validated by other investigators, the proposed schema will be useful in determining prognosis for late functional status based on PTA duration.

Background: Published guidelines for defining the "minimally conscious state" (MCS) included behaviours that characterise emergence, specifically "reliable and consistent" functional interactive communication (accurate yes/no responding) and functional use of objects. Guidelines were developed by consensus because of the lack of empirical data to guide definitions. Criticism emerged that individuals with severely impaired cognition would have difficulty achieving the requisite threshold of accuracy and consistency proposed to demonstrate emergence from MCS., Objective: To determine the utility of the operational threshold for emergence from post-traumatic MCS, by evaluating a measure of yes/no accuracy (Cognitive Test for Delirium, auditory processing subtest (CTD-AP).), Methods: Prospective, consecutive cohort of responsive patients recovering from traumatic brain injury (TBI), including a subset meeting criteria for MCS at neurorehabilitation admission who improved and were able to undergo the study protocol. Participants were evaluated at least weekly, and given the CTD-AP to assess yes/no responding., Results: Of the 1434 observations from 336 participants, 767 observations yielded inaccurate yes/no responses. 75 participants (22%) never attained consistently accurate yes/no responses at any time during their hospitalisation. Generalised estimating equations analysis revealed that confused participants were more likely to respond inaccurately to yes/no questions. Further, the subset of individuals who were in MCS on rehabilitation admission and improved, were also more likely to respond inaccurately to yes/no questions., Conclusions: Consistent yes/no accuracy is uncommon among responsive patients in early recovery from TBI. These results suggest that the operational threshold for yes/no response accuracy as a diagnostic criterion for emergence from MCS should be revisited.

Objective: To investigate the prognostic significance of severity of post-traumatic confusion (PTC) and its constituent symptoms for early and late outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI)., Design: Prospective cohort study., Setting: Inpatient brain injury rehabilitation program., Participants: A total of 168 patients meeting study criteria from 195 consecutive Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems neurorehabilitation admissions., Interventions: Not applicable., Main Outcome Measures: Employability at neurorehabilitation discharge and productivity status at 1 year postinjury., Results: More severely confused patients had poorer outcomes for both employability and productivity. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that after adjustment for all other predictors, time to follow commands, and confusion severity predicted employability at discharge and age and confusion severity predicted productivity status at 1 year. Each symptom showed an unadjusted effect on discharge employability. All symptoms except nighttime sleep disturbance or daytime decreased arousal had effects on productivity at 1 year. Presence of psychotic-type symptoms was associated with especially poor productivity outcomes., Conclusions: PTC constituent symptoms and severity predict outcome after TBI. Presence or absence of psychotic-type symptoms on a single evaluation at approximately 21 days postinjury may have particular prognostic significance for productivity outcome.

Primary Objective: To determine factors that influence the strength of therapeutic alliance for patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) attending post-acute brain injury rehabilitation (PABIR) and to examine the association of therapeutic alliance with outcome after PABIR., Research Design: Prospective cohort study., Methods and Procedures: The study sample consisted of 69 of 95 patients with TBI admitted to the PABIR programme during the study period. Demographic and injury severity data were abstracted from medical records or obtained through interview. Study questionnaires (the modified California Psychotherapy Alliance Scales-patient, family and clinician forms; the Prigatano Alliance Scale; the Awareness Questionnaire; the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale; and the Family Assessment Device-General Functioning Scale) were obtained within 2 weeks of patient admission to the PABIR programme., Main Outcomes and Results: Study outcomes were functional status (Disability Rating Scale), programme completion and employment status at discharge from PABIR. Higher levels of family discord were associated with poorer therapeutic alliance. Greater discrepancies between family and clinician ratings of patient functioning were associated with poorer therapeutic alliance and poorer effort in therapies. Poor participation was predictive of programme dropout. Productivity status at discharge was predicted by functional status at admission and degree of therapeutic alliance., Conclusions: Findings indicate that family perceptions and family functioning are important determinants of therapeutic alliance for patients in PABIR. These results indicate that therapists in PABIR programmes should address family perceptions and functioning to facilitate patient bonding with the programme.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the incidence of neutralizing antibody (NAb) formation in patients with poststroke spasticity treated with a specific formulation of botulinum toxin type A (BoNTA)., Methods: Data from 3 previous clinical trials of BoNTA in patients with upper and/or lower limb spasticity were pooled and evaluated. Study 1 was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial of BoNTA in patients aged >/=21 years who had experienced a stroke >6 months before the initiation of the study. Study 2 was an open-label extension of study 1. Study 3 was a randomized, double-blind, multicenter trial of a specific BoNTA formulation in patients aged >/= 21 years who had experienced a stroke >/=6 weeks before study entry. Patients with a fixed contracture of the studied limb were excluded from participation in studies 1 and 2. Serum samples were obtained from each patient before each BoNTA treatment and at the end of each study. The mouse protection assay (MPA) was used for detection of NAbs to BoNTA in serum., Results: A total of 235 individual patients with post-stroke spasticity were enrolled in the 3 trials, including 126, 111 (all of whom participated in study 1), and 109 in studies 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Study 1 had an equal (50.0%) distribution of male and female patients (63/63). The distribution of male and female patients was 56 (50.5%) and 55 (49.5%), respectively, in study 2, and 55 (50.5%) and 54 (49.5), respectively, in study 3. The mean (SD) ages of patients in studies 1, 2, and 3 were 61.4 (13.8), 61.5 (14.1), and 58.5 (13.9) years, respectively. The MPA was used for detection of NAbs to BoNTA in the serum samples of 191 patients, including 64 from study 1, 111 from study 2 (55 of these patients were placebo recipients and 56 received their first BoNTA injection in study 1), and 72 (a sample was not obtained for 1 patient who had not received an injection) from study 3. The median number of BoNTA treatments received by these patients was 2 (range, 1-4 treatments) over a period lasting from 12 to 42 weeks. The mean dose of BoNTA was 241 U (range, 100-400 U), with a maximum dose of 960 U in any 1 patient. NAbs to BoNTA were detected in the serum sample of 1/191 (0.5%) patient who had participated in studies 1 and 2. Based on muscle-tone scores (3 and 4 for wrist and fingers, respectively) on a 5-point Ashworth Scale (0 = none to 4 = severe), the patient did not appear to exhibit a clinical response to BoNTA at any time during the studies., Conclusion: Formation of NAbs was rare (1/191) in this group of adults with poststroke spasticity from three 12- to 42-week clinical trials who received >/=1 treatment with a specific BoNTA formulation at doses ranging from 100 to 400 U.

Implanted programmable pumps that infuse intrathecal baclofen (ITB) markedly enhance the ability of clinicians to manage severe spasticity in appropriately selected patients. Studies addressing the efficacy of this treatment modality have primarily used clinical outcome measures of impairment, particularly reduction in stiffness as measured by the Ashworth scale. Several recent studies, however, highlight comparalively higher sensitivity of neurophysiologic techniques, especially the H-reflex, as an objective index of spinal cord response to ITB administration. We review the conceptual, physiological, and methodological hases for use of the H-reflex as an adjunct to clinical evaluation among patients receiving ITB infusion, including published reports and selected case studies that address the potential advantages and limitations of such techniques when applied to dose titration and system "troubleshooting" scenarios, We also address the implications of such findings in the context of reported complications such as "tolerance" to ITB administration and catheter "microfracture". The accumulated knowledge suggests that H-reflex is a sensitive method for documenting altered spinal cord responsiveness in the presence of ITB delivery. We therefore recommend using H-reflex as an adjunct to clinical evaluation when judging the overall effectiveness of ITB administration.

Objective: To determine national patterns of screening, prophylaxis, and treatment of deep venous thrombosis (DVT) following traumatic brain injury (TBI) within the Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems (TBIMS)., Design: e-mail survey instrument., Setting: Multicenter Regional TBIMS., Results: Fifteen of the 16 rehabilitation centers within the TBIMS responded to the survey (94% response rate). Approximately half of these centers routinely screen to detect subclinical DVTs (56% venous duplex ultrasonography, 12% plasma D-dimer) on admission to inpatient rehabilitation. Fifty-six percent of respondents use anticoagulation prophylactically, while 69% use mechanical means for DVT prophylaxis. Eighty fatal pulmonary emboli were reported for TBI patients in 189 practice-years, corresponding to 0.42 fatalities per year of practice., Conclusions: No consensus exists regarding the optimal methods for screening, prevention, or treatment of DVT in TBI patients in the acute rehabilitation setting of the TBIMS. The number of fatal pulmonary emboli reported among these centers emphasizes the need to develop evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism in this patient population.

Intrathecal baclofen (ITB) therapy has been increasingly employed for the management of poststroke spastic hypertonia, a complication that can lead to deformity, discomfort, and exacerbation of motor impairments. Because its use in stroke is not as established as other indications, ITB therapy has not been subjected to rigorous investigation. There is limited evidence to guide clinicians regarding application of this therapy in this patient population. This article aims to review the available scientific literature and the opinion of several experts on the topic. It will also describe the recommendations of these experts with regard to addressing common clinical situations that may influence treatment decisions in the stroke population.