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Genetic load and inbreeding are recognized as important factors to be considered in conservation programs. Elevated levels of both can increase the risk of population extinction by negatively impacting fitness-related characters in many species of plants and animals, including humans (inbreeding depression). Genomic techniques are increasingly used in measuring and understanding genetic load and inbreeding and their importance in evolution and conservation. We used whole genome resequencing data from two sibling grouse species in subarctic Eurasia to quantify both. We found a large range of inbreeding measured as FROH (fraction of runs of homozygosity) in individuals from different populations of Chinese Grouse (Tetrastes sewerzowi) and Hazel Grouse (T. bonasia). FROH estimated from genome-wide runs of homozygosity (ROH) ranged from 0.02 to 0.24 among Chinese Grouse populations and from 0.01 to 0.44 in Hazel Grouse. Individuals from a population of Chinese Grouse residing in the Qilian mountains and from the European populations of Hazel Grouse (including samples from Sweden, Germany and Northeast Poland) were the most inbred (FROH ranged from 0.10 to 0.23 and 0.11 to 0.44, respectively). These levels are comparable to other highly inbred populations of birds. Hazel Grouse from northern China and Chinese Grouse residing in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau showed relatively lower inbreeding levels. Comparisons of the ratio between deleterious missense mutations and synonymous mutations revealed higher levels in Chinese Grouse as compared to Hazel Grouse. These results are possibly explained by higher fixation rates, mutational melt down, in the range-restricted Chinese Grouse compared to the wide-ranging Hazel Grouse. However, when we compared the relatively more severe class of loss-of-function mutations, Hazel Grouse had slightly higher levels than Chinese Grouse, a result which may indicate that purifying selection (purging) has been more efficient in Chinese Grouse on this class of mutations.

Personality traits, the consistent individual behavioral differences, are currently gaining much attention in studies of natural bird populations. However, associations between personality traits and parasite infections are not often investigated. Even less attention has been given to studies of birds in the high-elevation region such as the Tibetan plateau. This research aims to examine the relationship between avian malaria parasites and two personality traits in a population of the Chestnut Thrush (Turdus rubrocanus) breed in the Tibetan plateau.Our results revealed no evidence of sex bias in malaria parasite prevalence. Furthermore, we found no effect of infection status on two personality scores: activity and boldness. Additionally, no effects on the activity level or boldness were observed for different parasite lineages of Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, the sex of the birds, or their interactions. Similarly, we did not find any relationship between activity level and boldness with nestling numbers, sex, or their interactions. Notably, individuals with a larger number of offspring tended to display greater boldness. Our findings indicate that blood parasite infections are common in this population but do not significantly impact the personality of the birds.

Lyu and colleagues use theoretical models to examine the relationship between post-pairing male behaviors and female trait evolution. They find that male mate choosiness can be surprisingly influential on the evolution of costly female traits, but also that costly male preference and costly female traits could evolve to a polymorphic equilibrium under certain conditions.

Abstract A principle of choice in animal decision-making named probability matching (PM) has long been detected in animals, and can arise from different decision-making strategies. Little is known about how environmental stochasticity may influence the switching time of these different decision-making strategies. Here we address this problem using a combination of behavioral and theoretical approaches, and show, that although a simple Win-Stay-Loss-Shift (WSLS) strategy can generate PM in binary-choice tasks theoretically, budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulates) actually apply a range of sub-tactics more often when they are expected to make more accurate decisions. Surprisingly, budgerigars did not get more rewards than would be predicted when adopting a WSLS strategy, and their decisions also exhibited PM. Instead, budgerigars followed a learning strategy based on reward history, which potentially benefits individuals indirectly from paying lower switching costs. Furthermore, our data suggest that more stochastic environments may promote reward learning through significantly less switching. We suggest that switching costs driven by the stochasticity of an environmental niche can potentially represent an important selection pressure associated with decision-making that may play a key role in driving the evolution of complex cognition in animals.

Abstract Among seven species of the order Eulipotyphla (from southern Gansu and northern Sichuan Provinces, Central China) studied cytogenetically, karyotypes of one talpid species, Uropsilus aff. soricipes (2n = 36, NFa = 54), and three soricid species, Chodsigoa hypsibia (2n = 65, NFa = 66), Sorex cansulus (2n = 42, NFa = 64) and Sorex thibetanus (2n = 42, NFa = 60), are described cytogenetically for the first time. All four species are endemic to China with distribution ranges restricted to the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and adjacent mountain ranges. The Ch. hypsibia karyotype consists of mostly acrocentric autosomes and one metacentric pair of autosomes; besides, a B chromosome was identified. No polymorphism was detected among karyotypes of other species, including shrews Sorex bedfordiae (2n = 26, NFa = 44), Anourosorex squamipes (2n = 48, NFa = 92) and Crocidura suaveolens (2n = 40, NFa = 44). The Chinese shrew mole U. aff. soricipes and three shrew species (S. bedfordiae, Ch. hypsibia and A. squamipes) represent autochthonous fauna of Central/Western China, whereas S. thibetanus, S. cansulus and C. suaveolens belong to phylogenetic groups occurring mostly to the north and west from China; therefore, they should be considered relatively recent colonisers. Thus, considering the relationships of the species within phylogenetic groups, our results on karyotypes are in good agreement with molecular genetic data.

Abstract Background The boreal forest is one of the largest biomes on earth, supporting thousands of species. The global climate fluctuations in the Quaternary, especially the ice ages, had a significant influence on the distribution of boreal forest, as well as the divergence and evolution of species inhabiting this biome. To understand the possible effects of on-going and future climate change it would be useful to reconstruct past population size changes and relate such to climatic events in the past. We sequenced the genomes of 32 individuals from two forest inhabiting bird species, Hazel Grouse (Tetrastes bonasia) and Chinese Grouse (T. sewerzowi) and three representatives of two outgroup species from Europe and China. Results We estimated the divergence time of Chinese Grouse and Hazel Grouse to 1.76 (0.46–3.37) MYA. The demographic history of different populations in these two sibling species was reconstructed, and showed that peaks and bottlenecks of effective population size occurred at different times for the two species. The northern Qilian population of Chinese Grouse became separated from the rest of the species residing in the south approximately 250,000 years ago and have since then showed consistently lower effective population size than the southern population. The Chinese Hazel Grouse population had a higher effective population size at the peak of the Last Glacial Period (approx. 300,000 years ago) than the European population. Both species have decreased recently and now have low effective population sizes. Conclusions Combined with the uplift history and reconstructed climate change during the Quaternary, our results support that cold-adapted grouse species diverged in response to changes in the distribution of palaeo-boreal forest and the formation of the Loess Plateau. The combined effects of climate change and an increased human pressure impose major threats to the survival and conservation of both species.

Abstract The Old World sparrows include some of the best-studied passerine species, such as the cosmopolitan human commensal, the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) as well as poorly studied narrow-range endemics like the Iago sparrow (P. iagoensis) from the Cape Verde Archipelago or specialists from extreme environments like the desert sparrow (P. simplex). It is therefore notable that to date the most complete phylogenetic hypothesis for the Old World sparrows comprised only ten of 43 currently accepted species. With this study we provide an updated phylogeny of Passeridae covering about two third of the family’s species richness. Though still being far from taxon-complete, this new phylogenetic hypothesis provides firm evidence to clarify some open taxonomic questions. All genus-level taxa were reciprocally monophyletic with strong support. Contrary to previous classifications, bush sparrows and rock sparrows were not sister taxa, and therefore their classification in separate genera Gymnoris and Petronia is justified. Plumage color traits like the yellow throat patch of the latter two genera or head color pattern in Passer species do not provide reliable phylogenetic information, except for the large-sized African grey-headed sparrows that resulted as a monophyletic group (P. diffusus, P. griseus, P. gongoensis). Unexpectedly, two small-sized species, P. eminibey and P. luteus that to date are regarded as close relatives were firmly nested in two separate clades of Passer sparrows. Therefore, their separate generic treatment under Sorella eminibey and Auripasser luteus (together with A. euchlorus) does not seem justified.

Abstract Encompassing some of the major hotspots of biodiversity on Earth, large mountain systems have long held the attention of evolutionary biologists. The region of the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau (QTP) is considered a biogeographic source for multiple colonization events into adjacent areas including the northern Palearctic. The faunal exchange between the QTP and adjacent regions could thus represent a one‐way street (“out of” the QTP). However, immigration into the QTP region has so far received only little attention, despite its potential to shape faunal and floral communities of the QTP. In this study, we investigated centers of origin and dispersal routes between the QTP, its forested margins and adjacent regions for five clades of alpine and montane birds of the passerine superfamily Passeroidea. We performed an ancestral area reconstruction using BioGeoBEARS and inferred a time‐calibrated backbone phylogeny for 279 taxa of Passeroidea. The oldest endemic species of the QTP was dated to the early Miocene (ca. 20 Ma). Several additional QTP endemics evolved in the mid to late Miocene (12–7 Ma). The inferred centers of origin and diversification for some of our target clades matched the “out of Tibet hypothesis’ or the “out of Himalayas hypothesis” for others they matched the “into Tibet hypothesis.” Three radiations included multiple independent Pleistocene colonization events to regions as distant as the Western Palearctic and the Nearctic. We conclude that faunal exchange between the QTP and adjacent regions was bidirectional through time, and the QTP region has thus harbored both centers of diversification and centers of immigration.

Abstract Background Thrush species are rarely parasitized by cuckoos, but many have a strong egg recognition ability. To date, there is a limited understanding of the relationship between host egg rejection and cuckoo parasitism rate. Methods By using egg experiments in the field, we compared egg rejection between two non-parasitized potential host species and two parasitized hosts of cuckoos in the same region. Results The White-bellied Redstart (Luscinia phoenicuroides), a host of the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), rejected 66.6% of blue model eggs; the Elliot’s Laughingthrush (Trochalopteron elliotii), a host of the Large Hawk Cuckoo (Hierococcyx sparverioides), rejected 25% of blue model eggs and 46.1% of white model eggs; and the Chestnut Thrush (Turdus rubrocanus) and the Chinese Thrush (T. mupinensis), in which cuckoo parasitism has not been recorded, rejected 41.1 and 83.3% of blue model eggs, respectively. There were no significant differences in the egg rejection among them, although the Chinese Thrush showed the highest rate of egg rejection. Conclusions This study indicates that the egg recognition ability of cuckoo hosts has no correlation with the actual parasitism rate of cuckoos. We suggest that the egg recognition ability of the two potential host species may have been retained from a parasitic history with the cuckoo, while the two common host species have developed their egg rejection abilities due to current parasitism pressure. In addition, our study highlights the importance of the multi-cuckoo parasite system for better understanding the selection pressure of parasitism on the evolution of host egg recognition abilities.

Abstract Background The Quaternary had worldwide consequences in forming the contemporary diversity of many populations, species and communities, which is characterized by marked climatic oscillations between glacial and interglacial periods. The origin and evolution of biodiversity in mountainous areas are highly dependent on historical orogenesis and associated climatic changes. The Chinese grouse Tetrastes sewerzowi is a forest-dwelling species endemic to the mountains to the east of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, which has been listed as Near Threatened with a decreasing trend by the IUCN because of ongoing deforestation and fragmentation of coniferous forests. It is important to place current population status into a broader ecological and evolutionary context to understand their demographic history. Results Analyses of the Chinese Grouse genome revealed fluctuations throughout the Pleistocene in effective population size. Populations decreased during early to middle Pleistocene but showed an expansion during late Pleistocene which was then followed by a sharp decline during the last glacial maximum (LGM). Ecological niche modeling indicated that a suitable habitat shift between high altitude regions to low altitude regions was due to a changing climate. This result parallels patterns of population size change in Chinese Grouse estimated from PSMC modelling, which suggested an expansion in population size from the last interglacial period (LIG) and then a peak and a bottleneck occurring at the last glacial maximum (LGM). Furthermore, the present-day distribution of Chinese Grouse is greatly reduced and fragmented. It will likely become even more fragmented in the future since coniferous forest cover is threatened in the region of their distribution and the availability of such habitat restricts their ecological niche. Conclusions The Chinese Grouse have experienced substantial population size changes from the beginning to the LIG and reached a peak before the LGM. A sharp decrease and bottleneck occurred during the LGM, when the coniferous forests were subjected to extensive loss. The results inferred from the whole genome sequencing and species distribution models both support historical population fluctuations. The distribution of the Chinese Grouse is strongly dependent on the coniferous forest cover. To protect the fragmented coniferous forests is an essential action to protect the Chinese Grouse.

Abstract Background Nestling discrimination and feeding habits during brooding are important factors affecting host selection of parasitic birds. Some host birds can avoid being parasitized by discriminating their nestlings or feeding food not suitable for parasitic nestlings. Thrushes are common medium-sized birds with widespread distribution and an open nesting habit, but they are rarely parasitized. It remains controversial whether this is due to feeding habits and/or nestling discrimination. Methods In this study, we tested the nestling discrimination ability and feeding habits of Chestnut Thrushes (Turdus rubrocanus) which is distributed in China’s multi-cuckoo parasitism system. Their nestling discriminability and feeding habits during brooding were studied by cross-fostering experiments and video recording to examine evolutionary restrictions on nestling discrimination and whether feeding habits are consistent with the growth of cuckoo nestlings. Results Our results indicate that Chestnut Thrushes using earthworms as the main brooding food can feed and maintain cuckoo nestlings and show no nestling discrimination. Conclusions The present study confirms that feeding habits cannot be regarded as the main factor affecting Chestnut Thrushes being rarely parasitized by cuckoos but suggests that egg rejection is likely to limit the evolution of nestling discrimination in thrushes.

Global climate change has a significant effect on species, as environment conditions change, causing many species' distributions to shift. During the last three million years, the earth has experienced glacial oscillations, forcing some species to survive in ice-free refugia during glacial periods and then disperse postglacially. In this study, by assessing the potential distribution of Siberian Grouse (Falcipennis falcipennis), we used Global Circular Models and Representative Concentration Pathways to model their pattern of range changes during glacial oscillations and the potential impact of present global warming. We used 158 location records of Siberian Grouse to generate a full climate model using 19 bioclimate variables in MaxEnt. We discarded variables with a correlation coefficient larger than 0.8 and relatively lower modeling contributions between each pair of correlated variables. Using the remaining variables, we created a normally uncorrelated simple climate model to predict the possible distribution of Siberian Grouse from the most recent Ice Age to present and to 2070. Then we added geographical data and the human interference index to construct a multiple factor full model to evaluate which were important in explaining the distribution of Siberian Grouse. The Total Suitability Zone (P ​≥ ​0.33) of Siberian Grouse is about 243,000 ​km2 and the Maximum Suitability Zone (P ​≥ ​0.66) is 36,000 ​km2 and is confined to the Russian Far East. Potential habitat modeling suggested that annual precipitation, annual mean temperature, and the distance from lakes are the most explanatory variables for the current distribution of Siberian Grouse. The distribution center moved to the southeast during the Last Glacial Maximum and spread back to the northwest after the ice melted and temperatures rose. The total area range of Siberian Grouse experienced a dramatic loss during the Last Glacial Maximum. Global warming is presently forcing the Siberian Grouse to migrate northward with a contraction of its range. There is an urgent need to protect its habitat, because little of its Maximum Sustainable Zone is protected, although there are some large reserves in that area.

The diversity of biota in different parts of the planet has demonstrated dramatic changes within the last several decades due to the extinction of native taxa and the appearance of invasive taxa. The correct taxonomic identification of non-native species is important for understanding their dispersal abilities, especially when potential invaders may be of closely related species. Information on the species identity of ricefish (Oryzias spp.), which have formed self-sustainable populations in some parts of Eurasia, is contradictory. In this paper, we studied samples from non-native populations of Oryzias from several Eurasian regions. The results of our mtDNA COI partial sequence study confirm that the individuals we studied belong to the species Chinese ricefish, O. sinensis. Analyses of the literature and our own data suggest that all known alien populations of Oryzias in continental Eurasia belong to the same species, O. sinensis. A recent finding of O. sinensis in the Don delta suggests that one of the species’ secondary dispersal pathways could run from the Kuban region through the lower part of the Don basin to the Cis-Azov area.

Zoning is an effective way to achieve regional planning and construction as well as standardized management. Efficient management zone designations would contribute to strengthening endangered species and biodiversity conservation of nature reserves. We evaluated the conservation effectiveness of the Baihuashan National Nature Reserve (BNNR), which was established primarily to conserve the vulnerable Brown Eared-Pheasant (Crossoptilon mantchuricum). We used species distribution models (SDMs) and GAP analysis to assess that the suitability of current functional zoning efforts to the protection of this species. Our results showed that current functional zoning is not adequate for protecting the Brown Eared-pheasant in BNNR. To optimize the conservation effectiveness for this species, we recommend a new functional zoning strategy be employed at BNNR, which is based on the distribution of the Brown Eared-pheasant and on the local economy. Our study thus provides a new strategy for optimizing the conservation effectiveness of functional zoning in nature reserves.

Habitat fragmentation is considered a major threat to biodiversity worldwide. Two endangered species, the blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus) and the blue eared pheasant (Crossoptilon auritum), co-exist in a fragmented forest in the Qilian Mountains. However, how their habitats react to the fragmenting landscape remains unclear. Therefore, we carried out a field survey in the core habitat of the two species in Qilian Mountains National Park and used the MaxEnt Model to predict their potential distribution and to assess the protection efficiency. Then, we utilized a modified within-patch fragmentation categorizing model to identify how their functional fragmentations differentiated. The results showed that the habitat utilization of the two pheasant species was significantly different, with a potential distribution area of 18,281 km2 for the blood pheasant and 43,223 km2 for the blue eared pheasant. The habitat of the blue eared pheasant is highly fragmented with 27.7% categorized as ‘Interior’ and 49.3% as ‘Edge’, while the habitat of the blood pheasant is more severe with 2.1% categorized as ‘Interior’ and 50.4% as ‘Edge’. Analysis shows that large areas of habitat for the two pheasants remain unprotected by the Qilian Mountains National Park. The intense grazing and human infrastructure may have a large effect on the currently highly fragmented landscape. Future measurements are needed to alleviate this conflict.

Abstract Background Incubating birds must balance the conflict between thermal needs of the developing embryos and their self-maintenance needs for energy. The Chinese Grouse (Tetrastes sewerzowi) lives in high mountain conifer forests and faces energy stress, cold environment, and predation pressure. Females might adjust incubation rhythm to adapt to these constraints. Methods Two methods were used to investigate egg laying and incubation pattern of the Chinese Grouse; 25 nests were monitored by data loggers and 12 nests by infrared video cameras. Results Female Chinese Grouses usually laid an egg every 2 days. The incubation period was 28–31 days. Overall incubation constancy for Chinese Grouse was 93%. The females took 5.0 recesses per day and 34% of all 1696 recesses were taken in the crepuscular period. The average recess duration was 20.3 min. Females took more and shorter recesses in the latter part of incubation. The females who allocated more time to foraging had a higher reproductive success. Conclusions Probably due to its high egg/body mass ratio, the Chinese Grouse has a long laying interval of 49 h. We suggest that, due to energy stress, females have relatively more recesses and they increase the number of recesses as incubation progresses. To compensate for the embryos’ thermal needs, they extend the incubation period and shorten the recess duration in this cold environment.

Abstract Background The habitat features of breeding territory have important adaptive significance for the survival and reproduction of territory holders. The Chinese Grouse (Tetrastes sewerzowi) is a rare and endemic species with relatively small distribution range and decreasing population trend. It is important to elucidate breeding territory habitat requirements of the Chinese Grouse for habitat management and conservation actions. Methods Using radio-telemetry and field observations, we determined the core areas of 65 breeding territories of males. Two to three samples were selected in each core breeding territory as used sites and compared with nearby sites with no grouse occurrence using logistic regression. Results Our model showed a high accuracy in prediction of core breeding territory used by males, which preferred stands with more small deciduous trees (0.5 m ≤ height

We examined the variation in sexual ornamentation of male Chinese grouse (Tetrastes sewerzowi) in the Gansu Province, China, seeking to identify factors involved in whether ornament size and brightness are honest signals of male quality. Compared to unmated males, mated males had significantly larger and redder combs and, although they did not have significantly larger territories, they defended them more vigorously. Mated males had significantly higher blood carotenoid and testosterone levels, significantly better body condition, and significantly lower parasite loads than unmated males. Our findings are thus consistent with the hypothesis that comb size and color are honest signals of better male quality in the grouse, mediated through lower parasite loads and/or higher testosterone levels.

A stochastic simulation model is investigated for the evolution of anti-predator behavior in birds. The main goal is to reveal the effects of population size, predation threats, and energy lost per escape on the evolutionary dynamics of fearfulness and boldness. Two pure strategies, fearfulness and boldness, are assumed to have different responses for the predator attacks and nonlethal disturbance. On the other hand, the co-existence mechanism of fearfulness and boldness is also considered. For the effects of total population size, predation threats, and energy lost per escape, our main results show that: (i) the fearful (bold) individuals will be favored in a small (large) population, i.e. in a small (large) population, the fearfulness (boldness) can be considered to be an ESS; (ii) in a population with moderate size, fearfulness would be favored under moderate predator attacks; and (iii) although the total population size is the most important factor for the evolutionary dynamics of both fearful and bold individuals, the small energy lost per escape enables the fearful individuals to have the ability to win the advantage even in a relatively large population. Finally, we show also that the co-existence of fearful and bold individuals is possible when the competitive interactions between individuals are introduced.

The boreal owl (Aegolius funereus) has a circumpolar distribution, typically inhabit extensive conifer forest of higher age classes in the northern hemisphere. Breeding biology, reproductive strategies, and behavioural ecology of these nocturnal birds are well studied in Europe and North America. However, the knowledge of the subspecies of boreal owl (A. f. beickianus) in the coniferous forests at high mountainous altitude of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is still limited. We spent 10 years studying the breeding biology of A. f. beickianus in Lian Hua Shan Nature Reserve (Gansu Province), where we could first confirm the occurrence of this small forest dwelling owl in 1995. During breeding seasons (2003-2009, 2017-2019), we checked nest boxes and recorded the basic breeding data. Thereby a total of 51 broods were found with an average of 5.1 ± 1.7 broods per year. The mean egg mass and volume was 12.42 ± 1.36 g and 12.85 ± 0.79 mm³, respectively. Mean clutch size per brood was 2.61 ± 0.64. The mean number of fledglings was 1.25 ± 0.31 per nesting attempt and 2.07 ± 0.38 per successful brood. Nestling period lasted 35.75 ± 2.80 days in total, but was divided in two stages: in the first stage, which lasted 16.75 ± 1.48 days, the female stood in the breeding hole with its nestlings. In the second stage, which lasted 17 ± 4.34 days until the fledglings left their nest, the female stood outside the hole. The individual fledglings left the nesting site in intervals of 2.55 ± 1.92 days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With a decreasing population trend, the endemic Chinese grouse (Tetrastes sewerzowi) is categorized as class I national protected animal species in China. Lower breeding performance has been suggested as a main factor influencing the population viability of Chinese grouse. Nest predation, which might be time-varied, is a main contributor to the nest failures of Chinese grouse. Therefore, it is urgent to estimate nest age of Chinese grouse accurately before taking appropriate conservation actions. In this study, we estimated the nest age of Chinese grouse using the weight loss method, which has been found to be easily been conducted and also has a high accuracy compared with other methods, such as egg candling and floating. Our results confirmed the conveniency and accuracy of the weight loss method in estimating nest ages of Chinese grouse. We further discussed some cautions when applying the weight loss method. We recommended investigators to use the weight loss method rather than the candling or egg floating methods to determine avian nest ages in future field studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article discusses research which used Species Distribution Modeling (SDM) to assess the invasion risk of Alligator gar (Atractosteus spatula), an aggressive freshwater predator species, across the global freshwater networks. Topics covered include countries and regions that are considered as potential subequatoria invasion hotspots, the global scale of species invasion in freshwater ecosystems, and recommended action for the further mitigation of this invasive species.

We found nine nests of the Grey-hooded Parrotbill (Paradoxornis zappeyi) during April through July 2003 at Wawushan Natural Reserve, Sichuan, southwestern China. This report is the first description of the nest sites, nests, eggs, and breeding behavior of this parrothill, and the first documentation of nestling growth from hatching until fledging. The nests were constructed mainly of bamboo (Bashania faberi) leaves, fibrous roots, and moss by both male and female. Nests were bowl shaped and in bamboo thickets 81-122 cm above ground, and 17-68 cm below the top of bamboo leaves. Clutch size was 3.1 eggs (n = 8 nests) and eggs were oval, pale blue in color with a mean mass of 1.3 g. Incubation and provisioning of nestlings were by both parents. The nestling period was 13-14 days with a hatching rate of 0.52 and mean reproductive success rate of 0.48 fledglings per nest., The Grey-hooded Parrotbill (Paradoxornis zappeyi) is a rare Chinese endemic, one of five threatened members of a 10-species avian suite entirely restricted to the Central Sichuan Mountains Endemic Bird Area [...]