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Grain self‐sufficiency (GSS) is gaining increased attention throughout the world, and this holds particularly true for China. This study, therefore, investigated spatial and temporal patterns of GSS at the county level in China from 1980s to the 2010s; then explored future GSS changes in the 2035s according to China's 2016 dietary nutrition guidelines, under the circumstances of maximum, average and minimum grain yield increase rate; and finally discussed the ability of a county to purchase grain to meet its demands. The results indicate that the number of counties with self‐insufficiency for total grain and ration decreased, and the amount of counties with high‐level self‐sufficiency for total grain and ration increased. However, the change in the number of counties with feed grain self‐insufficiency and high‐level self‐sufficiency is opposite to that of ration and total grain. Eastern China was characterised by high GSS of total grain, ration and feed grain. As for different kinds of grain, high level of GSS distributed in main grain producing areas, such as rice in south China, wheat in western China and Huang Huai Hai Plain, maize in north and northwest China and soybean in northeast China. Qinghai‐Tibet plateau has undergone poor food security in the last 30 years. In the 2035s, China's total GSS level and ration self‐sufficiency level will be improved under the maximum and average grain yield increase rate, whilst for feed grain, the self‐sufficiency level will be improved only under the maximum grain yield increase rate. The Qinghai‐Tibet plateau has always been a fragile area of food security. This study plays the vital function in understanding China's food security and contributes to the optimisation of agricultural production as well as the utilisation of both internal and external markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urbanization involves the replacement of vegetated surfaces with impervious built surfaces, and it often results in an increase in the rate and volume of rainwater surface runoff. Urban green spaces play a positive role in rainwater-runoff reduction. However, few studies have explored the benefits of rainwater-runoff reduction by urban green spaces. Based on inventory data of urban green spaces in Beijing, the paper evaluated the economic benefits of rainwater-runoff reduction by urban green spaces, using the rainwater-runoff-coefficient method as well as the economic valuation methods. The results showed that, 2494 cubic meters of potential runoff was reduced per hectare of green area and a total volume of 154 million cubic meters rainwater was stored in these urban green spaces, which almost corresponds to the annual water needs of the urban ecological landscape in Beijing. The total economic benefit was 1.34 billion RMB in 2009 (RMB: Chinese currency, US$1=RMB6.83), which is equivalent to three-quarters of the maintenance cost of Beijing’s green spaces; the value of rainwater-runoff reduction was 21.77 thousand RMB per hectare. In addition, the benefits in different districts and counties were ranked in the same order as urban green areas, and the average benefits per hectare of green space showed different trends, which may be related to the impervious surface index in different regions. This research will contribute to an understanding of the role that Beijing’s green spaces play in rainwater regulation and in the creation and scientific management of urban green spaces. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As one of the important non-grain energy crops, sweet sorghum has attracted the attention of scientific community and decision makers of the world since decades. But insufficient study has been done about the spatial suitability distribution and ethanol potential of sweet sorghum in China. This paper attempts to probe into the spatial distribution and ethanol potential of sweet sorghum in China by ArcGIS methods. Data used for the analysis include the spatial data of climate, soil, topography and land use, and literatures relevant for sweet sorghum studies. The results show that although sweet sorghum can be planted in the majority of lands in China, the suitable unused lands for large-scale planting (unit area not less than 100hm2) are only as much as 78.6×104 hm2; and the productive potentials of ethanol from these lands are 157.1×104–294.6×104 t/year, which can only meet 24.8–46.4% of current demand for E10 (gasoline mixed with 10% ethanol) in China (assumption of the energy efficiency of E10 is equivalent to that of pure petroleum). If all the common grain sorghum at present were replaced by sweet sorghum, the average ethanol yield of 244.0×104 t/year can be added, and thus the productive potentials of sweet sorghum ethanol can satisfy 63.2–84.9% of current demand for E10 of China. In general, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia and Liaoning rank the highest in productive potentials of sweet sorghum ethanol, followed by Hebei, Shanxi, Sichuan, and some other provinces. It is suggested that these regions should be regarded as the priority development zones for sweet sorghum ethanol in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Humanity faces the important challenge of understanding and integrating human and natural processes, including agriculture. In China, the scarcity of arable land (0.09 ha per capita), increasing population, and migration of the workforce to cities pose a significant challenge for food security. Agricultural energy productivity has therefore become a key concern. In this study, we used input–output analysis to measure energy productivity at a national agro-ecosystem scale for China using the total embodied energy requirement (TEER) to reveal hidden energy flows. We introduced a structural decomposition technique that reveals how changes in TEER for the agricultural sector were driven by changes in energy-use technology and the inter-relationships among two agricultural sectors (farming and animal husbandry). The results will help both policymakers and farmers to improve the efficiency and environmental compatibility of agricultural production. Declining TEER for both sectors means that China's overall agro-ecosystem has increased its energy productivity since 1978 due to improved relationships between the agricultural sectors and increased use of biological energy. However, the net positive energy income decreased in the farming sector and an increasing proportion of fossil energy use, accompanied by increased energy income in the animal sector, provide incentives to increase yield and decrease labor by using more fossil energy, thus raising more animals in the animal husbandry sector. Overuse of fossil energy since 1990 has resulted in decreasing fossil energy efficiency, requiring immediate measures to improve the use of fossil-fuel-intensive materials such as fertilizers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Stable carbon isotope composition (δ13C) of C3 plant leaves from the Tibet Plateau was analyzed to detect the relationship between stable carbon isotope composition (δ13C) and precipitation. In northern Tibet, δ13C increases by 0.46‰ with an increase of 100mm in precipitation, while in the southern plateau δ13C decreases by 1.82‰ with an increase of 100mm in precipitation. Because field sampling is limited by funds and traffic conditions, while remote sensing has no limitations, satellite data was introduced as a new data source to study the relationship between δ13C and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). NDVI has the same trend with δ13C, as does precipitation. So NDVI can be used to indicate δ13C approximately. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Assess ecological security based on renewable ecological footprint. • Ecological security includes two aspects: health and risk. • Ecological health of the study area changed from healthy to unhealthy. • Every city in the study area has ecological risk. • The ecosystem of the study area changed from relatively unsafe to unsafe. The ecological footprint (EF) is an important tool for regional ecological security assessments. Based on the renewable EF components that meet the basic biomass needs of mankind, we evaluated the ecological security status of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (Great Bay Area) in 2000 and 2015 from two aspects: ecological health and ecological risk. The results were as follows. (1) The renewable biocapacity and the renewable EF have increased. The difference in the renewable EF structure between the urban and rural areas has nearly disappeared. Ecological consumption was concentrated in cities with a high flow of people, materials, and tourism. (2) The renewable biocapacity per hectare was high and increasing. The effective carrying rate varied greatly from city to city and was generally declining. The level of health in the Greater Bay Area has changed from healthy to unhealthy. (3) The renewable ecological deficit and the renewable ecological pressure have increased, and the ecological risks are further expanding. The increase in the number of cities above the high-risk level means more hotspot targets for ecological risk management. (4) The ecological security status of the Greater Bay Area has changed from relatively unsafe and weakly unsustainable to unsafe and strongly unsustainable. There is a need to protect natural assets, reduce ecological consumption, and improve the ecological security and sustainability of the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simulating the flows of ecosystem services (ESs) can help understand their spatiotemporal flow paths from generation to use, thereby facilitating payments from beneficiaries to providers of ESs. In this study, an analytical framework incorporated with ES flows and regional disparity was established to compute payments for wind erosion prevention service (WEPS). The results showed that between 2010 and 2015, both the potential and actual wind erosion amounts in Yanchi County decreased considerably, and the total amount of sand fixed by WEPS decreased significantly from 3.71 × 109 kg to 0.08 × 109 kg; additionally, the economic value of the WEPS also decreased from CNY 479.46 million to CNY 10.22 million. Based on the spatiotemporal movements of the physical and economic value flows of the WEPS, this study revealed spatiotemporal relationships between areas providing and benefiting from the WEPS of Yanchi County and provided a direct, scientific basis for decision makers to formulate payment systems for WEPS. The total amount paid for WEPS by beneficiaries in China should theoretically be CNY 38.16 million in 2010 and CNY 1.00 million in 2015 based on the economic value flow of WEPS and the regional disparity coefficient. This framework can provide a scientific and objective basis for establishing horizontal ecological compensation policies. Unlabelled Image • Wind erosion prevention service (WEPS) is an invisible protective service. • ES flows can visualize the relationship between providers and beneficiaries of ESs. • This relationship can be reflected in the physical and economic value flow of WEPS. • Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) aim to compensate the ES providers. • A framework to compute the PES for WEPS based on ES flows and regional disparity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water supply services (WSSs) are critical for the regional water balance and water circulation, but relevant studies have not established the relationship between WSSs and human well-being. This research identifies the scope of areas that benefit from WSSs from an ecosystem service flow perspective. Moreover, the path and quantity of the flow of WSSs are simulated to provide a scientific theoretical basis for ecosystem service management and ecological compensation. The Dongjiang Lake Basin is a national priority river basin in China where ecological compensation pilot programmes concerning water resources are top priorities. Dongjiang Lake Basin experienced an increase and then a decrease in the overall supply of water, with an average net water supply of 1096-1500 mm for the years 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010. The water demand increased each year in service beneficiary areas (SBAs), varying from 387 to 580 mm. Overall, Dongjiang Lake Basin met the net water demands of the actual SBAs in the lower reaches, but a gap in the water supply and demand emerged gradually. This research provides an understanding of the functional mechanisms for the provision, demand and flow of WSSs and provides a scientific theoretical basis for ecosystem service management and ecological compensation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global water shortage is becoming increasingly severe, so the identification and protection of potential areas for harvesting water play important roles in alleviating drought. Suitable sites for potential water harvesting require a high runoff potential. Avoiding soil erosion caused by high surface runoff, however, is also necessary. We therefore developed a procedure for the continuous accounting of runoff potential based on the Soil Conservation Service curve number and potential risks of water and soil loss based on the universal soil loss equation to evaluate the potential for water harvesting. Suitable sites for rainwater harvesting covered 24.90% of the semi-arid area of Chifeng, southeastern Inner Mongolia, China. The best areas accounted for 8.4% of the study area. The southern part of the Greater Hinggnan Mountains in northern Chifeng had a large rainwater harvesting area, and the western and eastern parts of the Chifeng area belonging to Horqin Sandy Land and Hunshandake Sandy Land, respectively, had smaller rainwater-harvesting areas. The eight reservoirs in the Xilamulun River Basin were further analyzed as an example. Derived sites investigated by ground-truth field verification indicated a method accuracy of 87.5%. This methodology could be effective in other areas with similar requirements due to the increasing demand for water resources and requirements for the protection of soil-water resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid urbanization in Beijing, the vegetated surfaces have been increasingly replaced by impervious built surfaces. A clear recognition on the changes in green spaces pattern is vital for urban administrators and planners to optimize the urban development areas and define the ecological protection red lines. Based on the SPOT images and field investigation data of urban green spaces within the sixth ring road of Beijing in 2000, 2005 and 2010, the study investigated the dynamic changes of urban green spaces in this area, by means of GIS techniques and landscape ecology methods. The results indicated that green spaces in Beijing have decreased by 207 km2 from 2000 to 2010 at the expense of agricultural lands and waters. Although there has been some increases in urban forests and grasslands, it cannot compensate the rapid decrease of urban green spaces. The land cover types conversion occurred mainly in the areas between the fifth and sixth ring roads while the zones encircled by the fourth ring road had a little change. In addition, landscape metrics such as number of patches (NP) and shape index (SHAPE) increased, but the mean neatest-neighbor distance (MNN), aggregation index (AI) and patch cohesion index (COHESION) decreased during the period of 2000-2010. Also green landscapes became considerably isolated and fragmented. The study disclosed the obvious changes of green space size, composition and layout in urban districts of Beijing City from 2000 to 2010 and highlighted that construction of urban green space should consider not only the geometric or aesthetic effect, but also the increase of vertical green volume and optimization of spatial layout to fully develop the ecological service functions of green spaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on forest inventory data (FID) at sublot level, we estimated the carbon sequestration in forest vegetation of Beijing, China in 2009. In this study, the carbon sequestration in forest vegetation at sublot level was calculated based on net biomass production ( ΔB) which was estimated with biomass of each sublot and function relationships between ΔB and biomass. The biomass of forested land was calculated with biomass expansion factors (BEFs) method, while those of shrub land and other forest land types were estimated with biomass, coverage and height of referred shrubs and shrub coverage and height of each sublot. As one of special forested land types, the biomass of economic tree land was calculated with biomass per tree and tree number. The variation of carbon sequestration in forest vegetation with altitude, species and stand age was also investigated in this study. The results indicate that the carbon sequestration in forest vegetation in Beijing is 4.12 × 10 tC/yr, with the average rate of 3.94 tC/(ha·yr). About 56.91% of the total carbon sequestration in forest vegetation is supported by the forest in the plain with an altitude of < 60 m and the low mountainous areas with an altitude from 400 m to 800 m. The carbon sequestration rate in forest vegetation is the highest in the plain area with an altitude of < 60 m and decreased significantly in the transitional area from the low plain to the low mountainous area with an altitude ranging from 200 m to 400 m due to intensive human disturbance. The carbon sequestration of Populus spp. forest and Quercus spp. forest are relatively higher than those of other plant species, accounting for 25.33% of the total. The carbon sequestration in vegetation by the forest of < 40 years amounts to 45.38% of the total. The carbon sequestration rate in forest vegetation peaks at the stand age of 30-40 years. Therefore, it would be crucial for enhancing the capability of carbon sequestration in forest vegetation to protect the forest in Beijing, to limit human disturbance in the transitional area from the plain to the low mountain area, and to foster the newly established open forest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a comprehensive review of ecosystem services and their economic valuation in China. The main objective of this review is to introduce the findings of the various valuation studies, and explore the challenges that emerged in these studies. This paper shows that ecosystem services research in China went through four stages covering all the main ecosystem types and multi-scales. These studies have raised public awareness of the value of ecological and bio-resource issues, and promoted the establishment of eco-compensation mechanisms in China. However, there are still many controversies and challenges that have emerged from current ecosystem services research. We propose that future ecosystem services research focuses on i) the corresponding definition and classification systems for all ecosystems; ii) the observation and establishment of the relationship between ecosystem structures and corresponding functions; iii) the improvement and normalization of valuation methods; and iv) the exploration and analysis of the spatial and temporal variations of ecosystem services. Furthermore, it is important to improve the accessibility of ecosystem services valuation in environmental decision-making. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

[Display omitted] • Ecosystem service supply and benefiting areas correspond to the sellers and buyers of interregional ecological compensation (IEC), respectively. • Establishing an IEC framework of water supply services (WSSs) by combining WSSs flow simulation and regional disparity. • Most regions serve as a dual role in the WSSs flow process, which is relative and scale-dependent. • Dual role of water supply and benefiting areas lead to the two-way compensation. Ecosystem service (ES) flow reveals the transregional benefits transferred from service supply areas (SSAs) to service benefiting areas (SBAs), which correspond to the sellers and buyers of interregional ecological compensation, respectively. However, current ecological compensation policies usually ignore this close connection. This study took the water supply services (WSSs) with the most obvious flow characteristics as an example and established a universal framework for interregional ecological compensation by combining WSSs flow simulation and regional disparity. The simulation process was programmed with Interactive Data Language (IDL) and analyzed with ArcGIS. Most regions serve as a dual role in the WSSs flow process, the water suppliers and users are relative and scale-dependent. Taking Ningxia as an example, As water benefiting areas (WBAs)/buyers, the total material inflow to Ningxia was 135.86 × 108 ~ 294.22 × 108 m3 from 2000 to 2015 and the value inflow ranged from 1077.39 × 108 ~ 2333.16 × 108 CNY, requiring 101.64 × 108 ~ 293.51 × 108 CNY ecological compensation paid by Ningxia. As water supply areas (WSAs)/sellers, the total material outflow from Ningxia was 72.83 × 108 ~ 200.46 × 108 m3 from 2000 to 2015, and the value outflow was between 577.54 × 108 CNY and 1589.65 × 108 CNY, requiring 63.80 × 108 ~ 112.34 × 108 CNY of ecological compensation to be paid by the downstream basins, especially the Shizuishan – Hekou Town subbasin. Overall, Ningxia was a beneficiary area of WSSs flow and the payers of interregional ecological compensation, with a net payment amount of 37.84 × 108 ~ 181.16 × 108 CNY. This study provides a direct spatial-visualized reference to water resource management for policy-makers and promotes the integration of ES flow and interregional ecological compensation. Furthermore, it can improve the public recognition of interregional ecological compensation with the spatial mapping of the levy and allocation and conducive to the sustainable provisioning of ESs ultimately. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The 3D EF model is improved to be three sub-items. • Overshoot is concentrated in the forest land footprint. • The basic land footprint, which related to human survival, has not been overshot. • The built-up land footprint will not be overshot but will encroach on other lands. The ecological footprint (EF) is an important tool for assessing ecological resource occupancy. The three-dimensional (3D) EF changes the EF from a plane to a column, and the bottom (EF size) represents the human appropriation of the annual natural resource flow provided by the earth, while the height (EF depth) represents the number of years required to regenerate the resources consumed within 1 year. According to the difference in the human demands for the productive functions of land, this paper improves the 3D EF model based on three sub-items, namely, the basic land footprint (including the footprint of cropland, grazing land and fishing grounds), which captures the demands of the physical part of food and clothing; forest land footprint, which captures wood and carbon absorption demands; and the built-up land footprint, which captures production and living space demands. The improved model is a 3D structure with three different heights. The bottom shows human appropriation of annual natural flows of the sub-items, and there is competition between the sub-items. The sub-heights are related to the overshoot of the sub-items. The forest land footprint depth is earlier and deeper than the 3D EF, and the footprint depth of the built-up land and basic land kept the natural depth. Therefore, humans perceive climate change, but their daily survival is not significantly affected. The flow occupancy ratio (or flow) and the accumulated ecological debt depth (EF depth accum) are introduced to analyse the closeness to the overshooting state and the years of using existing resources to eliminate historical ecological debt, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• All ecosystem services (ESs) showed·decreasing trend from the southeast to the northwest. • ESs bundles dominated by sand-fixing service were primarily located in the southwest. • Wind speed, soil types, slope, vegetation types are the main driving factors. • Trade-offs and synergies among ESs appear spatial heterogeneity. The relationships among ecosystem services (ESs) and their spatiotemporal dynamics plays an essential role in ESs management. However, it is difficult to characterize the spatial composition of ecosystem services bundles (ESB), clarify the complex relationships and their driving forces. This study estimated 6 specific ESs of Beijing-Tianjin Sandstorm Source Control Project (BTSSCP) based on related models, using conjunction operations identified ESB, finally explored the trade-offs and synergies between ESs within each ESB, and furtherly suggested different management zones in terms of ESB types. The results indicated the values of all six key ESs have improved from 2000 to 2015, and shown a decreasing trend from the southeast to the northwest accompanied by expansion trend of the high value region. Additionally, ESB dominated by sand-fixing service were primarily distributed in the southwest and showed a trend of continuous and significant expansion from southwest to northeast during 2000–2015. And, wind speed, soil types, slope, vegetation types and population density are the main driving factors of ESB changes. What's more, trade-offs and synergies among ESs appears the characteristics of spatial heterogeneity, especially between sand-fixing service and Net primary productivity, which presenting synergistic promotion relationship in bundles 1 and 2, while significant trade-offs in bundles 3 and 4. Finally, we divided BTSSCP into three zones—key improvement zone, ecological conservation zone, and integrated optimization zone based on ESB as per the regional sand-fixing capacity, enhancement potential and the relationship between ESs, and proposed specific suggestions for management in various ESB, which are beneficial to regional sustainable development and appropriate management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Introducing a new method to calculate productivity factor of EF model based on NPP. [•] Calculating China's productivity factors of 4 bio-productive land types. [•] Calculating the productivity factors of different land types in China's 34 provinces. [•] Comparing of productivity factors derived from this paper with other research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In comparison with all data for rural China, deficiencies of animal protein and fat intake were identified using the method of Gerbens-Leenes et al. ([Gerbens-Leenes, P.W., Nonhebel, S., Iven, W.P.M.F., 2002. A method to determine land requirements relating to food consumption patterns. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 90: 47–45]) in examining food consumption patterns and arable land requirements of Guyuan District, a remote rural area of western China. Population growth and rapid economic development have increasingly been reducing the land available for primary production, creating potentially serious risks for China's food security. Land required to produce food is determined by population size, consumption patterns, land resource endowment – or “agro-ecological” conditions and the level of farm intensification. Per capita land requirements in Guyuan District were identified to meet basic consumption needs, and to evaluate nutritional conditions related to current consumption patterns. Data used for this analysis were obtained from surveys of household food consumption. Food consumption involved only meeting basic requirements for sustenance, with grains, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, and plant oils being the most commonly consumed foods. Per capita intake of calories totaled 11.1 MJ·day−1, matching the recommended level for China to meet basic health requirements. Daily protein intake was 66.8 g·person−1·day−1, being below the recommended standard of 77 g·person−1·day−1. Of this total, protein from animal meat accounted for only 7.5% of total protein. Fat intake totaled only 47.4 g·person−1·day−1, being far below the standard of 70 g·person−1·day−1. Yet, farmers must sell their limited livestock to earn enough income to meet their daily consumption needs. This expenditure accounted for nearly 33% of mean annual household income, so only 28% of domestic animal products were consumed locally. Benchmark data is provided to assist with improving living standards of rural people. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The current pressure on production resources of the People''s Republic of China, such as land and water to feed the growing population, necessitates the assessment of farming practices. This is particularly critical in the North China Plain, which is the food bowl of the country. This study assesses the economic, environmental and socio-institutional aspects of the major cropping systems in the NCP, based on selected site-specific indicators and their established threshold limits. Necessary information for this study was obtained through a survey of 270 farm households from four villages in Ningjin County, soil sample analysis, chemical tests of nitrate concentration in groundwater and crop plants, field observation and discussions with key informants, as well as official reports and publications. The findings of the analysis revealed all cropping systems in the study area are economically viable. However, such achievements have been made at a cost to the environment, degradation of natural resources and risk to human health. The real costs of environmental degradation are mounting, taking the forms of groundwater depletion, soil salinization and compaction, and land subsidence over the decades, as well as nitrate contamination in groundwater and agro-products, farmers’ sickness, and loss of insect and pest predators. Sensitivity analysis shows that crop production reacts sensitively to changes of output price and in input costs, which implies an unstable production situation in a long period. Only about 6% of the surveyed farm households applied the recommendations of the corresponding agents for balanced input use. The study stresses that farming practices, which are economically viable, should not be promoted at the cost of the environment, otherwise, it would cause acute damage to the environmental and economic loss for the future. Several recommendations have been outlined for the promotion of sustainable cropping systems in the NCP. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ecosystem services (ESs) represent a complex network of multiple natural and socioeconomic driving factors. These interactions have become more common in an increasingly metacoupled world and have led to various ecosystem service bundles (ESBs). This study selected and assessed 8 representative ES types in Ningxia, including agricultural product provision (AP), water provision (WP), hay production (HP), livestock product provision (LP), wind erosion prevention (WEP), water conservation (WCON), soil retention (SR) and carbon sequestration (CS). Then, we used Spearman rank correlation coefficients to reveal the tradeoff or synergistic relationships between paired ESs at the grid, county and reginal scale and explored their linkages with socioecological driving factors. Based on the ES evaluation and ES relationship analysis, we mapped the spatiotemporal dynamic changes in ESBs in Ningxia in 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015. The results reflected the significant differences in natural and socioeconomic conditions from south to north in Ningxia. There were both positive and negative areas for a single relationship. On the whole, the supply of agricultural products were mainly negatively correlated at all the 3 scales. Most ES pairs were mainly positively correlated at all the scales, highlighting the coupled relationships among these ESs and certain achievements in ecological construction in Ningxia. There was strong consistency and correspondence between the ES distribution patterns and their pairwise relationships. The mechanism patterns tended to be spatially inversely distributed for the tradeoff-relationship ESs, while be more similarly distributed for the synergy-relationship ESs. Based on cluster analysis, three ESBs with similar ESs and driving factors were identified, including the Northern Agricultural Bundle (NA), Central Arid Sandstorm Prevention Bundle (CASP), and Southern Mountainous High Provision-Regulation Synergy Bundle (SMHPS). This study emphasized the spatiotemporal dynamic changes in the ESBs and tried to map the ES relationships at different scales to more precisely reveal the superposition areas of tradeoffs and synergies and their linkage with driving factors. Mapping the spatiotemporal dynamic changes in ESBs can enhance the understanding of the complex ES relationships and contribute to establishing a foundation for targeted ecosystem management in different areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]