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Hydrogels of superior mechanical behavior are under intense development for many applications. Some of these hydrogels can recover their stress–stretch curves after many loading cycles. These hydrogels are called self-recovery hydrogels or even fatigue-free hydrogels. Such a hydrogel typically contains a covalent polymer network, together with some noncovalent, reversible interactions. Here we show that self-recovery hydrogels are still susceptible to fatigue fracture. We study a hydrogel containing both covalently cross-linked polyacrylamide and un-cross-linked poly(vinyl alcohol). For a sample without precut crack, the stress–stretch curve recovers after thousands of loading cycles. For a sample with a precut crack, however, the crack extends cycle by cycle. The threshold for fatigue fracture depends on the covalent network but negligibly on noncovalent interactions. Above the threshold, the noncovalent interactions slow down the extension of the crack under cyclic loads.

Description, Tough elastomers that resist fracture at high loads are not optimum for sustaining many cycles at low loads., Although elastomers often experience 10 to 100 million cycles before failure, there is now a limited understanding of their resistance to fatigue crack propagation. We tagged soft and tough double-network elastomers with mechanofluorescent probes and quantified damage by sacrificial bond scission after crack propagation under cyclic and monotonic loading. Damage along fracture surfaces and its spatial localization depend on the elastomer design, as well as on the applied load (i.e., cyclic or monotonic). The key result is that reversible elasticity and strain hardening at low and intermediate strains dictates fatigue resistance, whereas energy dissipation at high strains controls toughness. This information serves to engineer fatigue-resistant elastomers, understand fracture mechanisms, and reduce the environmental footprint of the polymer industry.

Micromechanics-based fracture criteria for highly cross-linked thermosets are heavily needed in the context of multiscale composite failure analysis. Fracture in an epoxy resin under quasi-static loadings was previously addressed using a two-parameter model, formulated in terms of the attainment of a critical tensile stress at the tip of internal defects. This model requires the identification of the aspect ratio of the defect and of the critical stress. Here, we unravel the physics underlying this fracture criterion and extend its validity to high temperature test conditions, to fatigue and to fracture toughness in an application to the RTM6 epoxy resin system. Accurate prediction of the fracture strain at high temperatures supports the stress-based nature of the criterion. Fractographic analyses justify the relevance of the attainment of a critical stress in fatigue as well. Indeed, the similitude between fracture surfaces under quasi-static and fatigue loading conditions indicates an identical failure scenario which is found to consist of crack nucleation near a defect, a crack arrest step and a re-initiation process including crack tip blunting. Finally, a combination of finite element analyses and experiments allows linking the fracture in pre-cracked specimens to the identified fracture criterion. The success of this approach encompassing such a wide range of conditions was unexpected and leads to a much simpler treatment of fracture in this class of thermoset materials compared to other existing approaches. It opens new avenues for improving failure analysis of composites based on highly cross-linked epoxy resins for conditions where matrix cracking is dominant.

International audience; Designing innovative multi-functional thermoset polymers represents a major challenge in materials science. In this work, two novel polyhedral imidazolium ionic liquid supported on oligomeric silsesquioxane nanocages having chloride (Cl-) and bistrifluoromethanesulfonimidate (NTf2-) counter anions have been synthesized. These ionic nano-objects were used to nanostructure a model epoxy network. Hence, networks displaying a homogeneous nanoscale morphology were obtained by introducing 5wt % of such organic-inorganic (O/I) silicon-oxo clusters functionalized with ionic liquids. The obtained ionic hybrid O/I epoxy-amine networks display an excellent thermal stability (> 400 °C) compared to their neat counterparts, as well as a pronounced hydrophobic character (23 mJ m-2) and good mechanical performances. Moreover, these O/I nanostructured networks demonstrate an improved fire resistance according to pyrolysis-combustion flow calorimetry (PCFC) and cone calorimetry analyses. In fact, the use of low amounts of imidazolium ionic liquid-modified polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes induce a significant decrease of heat release rate (about 55 %), as well as a retardation of the ignition time (close to 29 %) compared to the neat epoxy-amine network.

Tremendous progress in nanomechanical testing and modelling has been made during the last two decades. This progress emerged from different areas of materials science dealing with the mechanical behaviour of thin films and coatings, polymer blends, nanomaterials or microstructure constituents as well as from the rapidly growing field of MEMS. Nanomechanical test methods include, among others, nanoindentation, in-situ testing in a scanning or transmission electron microscope coupled with digital image correlation, atomic force microscopy with new advanced dynamic modes, micropillar compression or splitting, on-chip testing, or notched microbeam bending. These methods, when combined, reveal the elastic, plastic, creep, and fracture properties at the micro- and even the nanoscale. Modelling techniques including atomistic simulations and several coarse graining methods have been enriched to a level that allows treating complex size, interface or surface effects in a realistic way. Interestingly, the transfer of this paradigm to advanced long fibre-reinforced polymer composites has not been as intense compared to other fields. Here, we show that these methods put together can offer new perspectives for an improved characterisation of the response at the elementary fibre-matrix level, involving the interfaces and interphases. Yet, there are still many open issues left to resolve. In addition, this is the length scale, typically below 10 micrometres, at which the current multiscale modelling paradigm still requires enhancements to increase its predictive potential, in particular with respect to non-linear plasticity and fracture phenomena.

© 2018 Elsevier Ltd The deformation behavior of polymer materials below their glass transition temperature involves a complex intermingling of elasticity, of viscoplastic yielding with softening and large strain hardening, and of significant rate, temperature and pressure dependency. During unloading, the response exhibits large non-linearity as well, combining forward and backward creep. Even though the nature of the atomistic underlying mechanisms is relatively well understood, a full picture of the interactions between the elementary distortion mechanisms and their collective organization capturing the complexity of the macroscopic behavior is still lacking. Here, we propose a mesoscale approach based on the heterogeneous activation of molecular level shear transformation zones and we show that it is rich enough to unravel the physical origin of most aspects of the macroscopic viscoplastic response. The study is based on a wide micro- and macro-mechanical test campaign on a thermoset material. In addition to providing a full characterization of all macroscopic properties, evidence of a complex rate reversal mechanism upon unloading is given. Other experiments provide insights about the characteristic length scales at play. Compared to existing continuum models involving typically more than 25 parameters, the present formalism is based on only 7 physical parameters while allowing quantitative predictions of all the experimental data. The present approach opens new avenues for the prediction of the mechanical response of a variety of polymer applications in confined state such as in composites or in adhesive joints. It also offers a new line of thought to address the mechanics of polymers at small and intermediate length scales.

Tough hydrogels of many chemical compositions have been developed in recent years, but their fatigue fracture has not been studied. The lack of study hinders further development of hydrogels for applications that require long lifetimes under cyclic loads. Examples include tissue engineering, soft robots, and stretchable electronics. Here we study the fatigue fracture of a polyacrylamide–alginate tough hydrogel. We find that the stress–stretch curve changes cycle by cycle, and reaches a steady state after thousands of cycles. The threshold for fatigue fracture is about 53 J/m2, much below the fracture energy ( ∼ 10,000 J/m2) measured under monotonic load. Nonetheless, the extension of crack per cycle in the polyacrylamide–alginate tough hydrogel is much smaller than that in a single-network polyacrylamide hydrogel.

The nonlinear deformation and fracture of RTM6 epoxy resin is characterized as a function of strain rate and temperature under various loading conditions involving uniaxial tension, notched tension, uniaxial compression, torsion, and shear. The parameters of the hardening law depend on the strain-rate and temperature. The pressure-dependency and hardening law, as well as four different phenomenological failure criteria, are identified using a subset of the experimental results. Detailed fractography analysis provides insight into the competition between shear yielding and maximum principal stress driven brittle failure. The constitutive model and a stress-triaxiality dependent effective plastic strain based failure criterion are readily introduced in the standard version of Abaqus, without the need for coding user subroutines, and can thus be directly used as an input in multi-scale modeling of fibre-reinforced composite material. The model is successfully validated against data not used for the identification and through the full simulation of the crack propagation process in the V-notched beam shear test.

Liquid propylene-glycol (PG) has long been used as an anti-icing substance, for example, by spraying on an airplane parked in an airport. In applications, large quantities of PG flow away, which is costly and raises environmental concerns. Here we report propylene-glycol materials, including PG-gels and PG-gel/cotton composites. A PG-gel consists of PG molecules as a solvent and a polymer network. PG evaporates slowly, and the polymer network retains the PG molecules so long as the gel is not in contact with running water. Water and PG form a eutectic system with an eutectic temperature of −60 °C. When ice falls on the surface of the gel, the ice and the PG molecules compete for water molecules, and thermodynamics dictates that the ice should lose water molecules to the PG molecules, so that ice melts and water molecules dissolve in the gel. A liquid-like layer exists on the ice/gel interface, the adhesion energy between the gel and ice is low, and ice readily slides on the gel. We peel a PG-gel from ice, and measure a low adhesion energy of ∼ 3 Jm−2 at temperatures about −35 °C. We further demonstrate PG-gel/cotton composites as tough, anti-icing blankets. The blankets are reusable if one removes water by dehydration, and replenish PG by submerging the blanket in liquid PG.

A large strain hyperelastic phenomenological constitutive model is proposed to model the highly nonlinear, rate-dependent mechanical behavior of amorphous glassy polymers under isothermal conditions. A co-rotational formulation is used through the total Lagrange formalism. At small strains, the viscoelastic behavior is captured using the generalized Maxwell model. At large strains beyond a viscoelastic limit characterized by a pressure-sensitive yield function, which is extended from the Drucker-Prager one, a viscoplastic region follows. The viscoplastic flow is governed by a non-associated Perzyna-type flow rule incorporating this pressure-sensitive yield function and a quadratic flow potential in order to capture the volumetric deformation during the plastic process. The stress reduction phenomena arising from the post-peak plateau and during the failure stage are considered in the context of a continuum damage mechanics approach. The post-peak softening is modeled by an internal scalar, so-called softening variable, whose evolution is governed by a saturation law. When the softening variable is saturated, the rehardening stage is naturally obtained since the isotropic and kinematic hardening phenomena are still developing. Beyond the onset of failure characterized by a pressure-sensitive failure criterion, the damage process leading to the total failure is controlled by a second internal scalar, so-called failure variable. The final failure occurs when the failure variable reaches its critical value. To avoid the loss of solution uniqueness when dealing with the continuum damage mechanics formalism, a non-local implicit gradient formulation is used for both the softening and failure variables, leading to a multi-mechanism non-local damage continuum. The pressure sensitivity considered in both the yield and failure conditions allows for the distinction under compression and tension loading conditions. It is shown through experimental comparisons that the proposed constitutive model has the ability to capture the complex behavior of amorphous glassy polymers, including their failure.

New applications of hydrogels draw growing attention to the development of tough hydrogels. Most tough hydrogels are designed through incorporating large energy dissipation from breaking sacrificial bonds. However, these hydrogels still fracture under prolonged cyclic loads with the presence of even small flaws. This paper presents a principle of flaw-insensitive hydrogels under both static and cyclic loads. The design aligns the polymer chains in a hydrogel at the molecular level to deflect a crack. To demonstrate this principle, a hydrogel of polyacrylamide and polyvinyl alcohol is prepared with aligned crystalline domains. When the hydrogel is stretched in the direction of alignment, an initial flaw deflects, propagates along the loading direction, peels off the material, and leaves the hydrogel flawless again. The hydrogel is insensitive to pre-existing flaws, even under more than ten thousand loading cycles. The critical degree of anisotropy to achieve crack deflection is quantified by experiments and fracture mechanics. The principle can be generalized to other hydrogel systems.

Polyacrylamide hydrogels are highly stretchable and nearly elastic. Their stress-stretch curves exhibit small hysteresis, and change negligibly after many loading cycles. Polyacrylamide is used extensively in applications, and is the primary network for many types of tough hydrogels. Recent experiments have shown that polyacrylamide hydrogels are susceptible to fatigue fracture, but available data are limited. Here we study fatigue fracture of polyacrylamide hydrogels of various water contents. We form polymer networks in all samples under the same conditions, and then obtain hydrogels of 96, 87, 78, and 69 wt% of water by solvent exchange. We measure the crack extension under cyclic loads, and the fracture energy under monotonic loading. For the hydrogels of the four water contents, the fatigue thresholds are 4.3, 8.4, 20.5, and 64.5 J m-2, and the fracture energies are 18.9, 71.2, 289, and 611 J m-2. The measured thresholds agree well with the predictions of the Lake-Thomas model for hydrogels of high water content, but not in the case of low water content. It is hoped that further basic studies will soon follow to aid the development of fatigue-resistant hydrogels.

The local mechanical properties of partially cured epoxy resins based on tetraglycidyl methylene dianiline (TGMDA) are proved to be heterogeneous at the nanoscale with the degree of heterogeneity decreasing when the crosslinking density increases. The fully cured resin can be considered homogeneous on both the nano- and macroscale. These conclusions are supported by a comprehensive statistical analysis of AFM-based local mechanical properties measurements, which reveal changes in the modulus distributions from multimodal to monomodal. Furthermore, the histograms of adhesion force and energy dissipation exhibit decreasing fluctuations with increasing degree of curing. The surface topography of all samples is very flat at the nanoscale, which indicates that the observed features are not the result of surface irregularities. The existence of differently cured domains due to local fluctuations in the curing kinetics is proposed as the origin of the observed properties contrast.

A plastic liquid such as toothpaste and butter deforms like an elastic solid under a small stress and like a plastic solid under a large stress. Recently, plastic liquids have been used as compliant electrodes for elastomeric transducers. Here, we study the deformation of a plastic liquid adherent on an elastomer when the elastomer is stretched monotonically. We observe that deformation in the plastic liquid localized into shear bands and necks. We further observe that the plastic liquid slips near the interface between the plastic liquid and the elastomer. Each pulling edge of the plastic liquid develops a shear tail, a thin layer of the plastic liquid adherent to the elastomer. As the elastomer is stretched, the tail conforms to the deformation of the elastomer, and the plastic liquid above the tail slips. Finite element simulations confirm that localization occurs even for a relatively simple elastic–plastic model, but require a boundary condition that allows the near-interface slip.

A new fracture criterion for semi brittle epoxy materials is developed, expressed in terms of the attainment of a local critical value of the maximum principal stress at the tip of small internal defects. The criterion is assessed on the highly cross-linked structural epoxy resin RTM6 used as matrix in fiber reinforced composites. Based on finite element simulations of unit cells, the local stress field at the tip of ellipsoidal defects is related to the macroscopic loading. The overall fracture stress levels measured on uniaxial tension and compression specimens are used to identify the two parameters of the failure criterion which involves the characteristic aspect ratio of the microdefects and the critical maximum principal tensile stress. An upper bound to the size of the microdefect is determined based on fracture mechanics arguments. The fracture criterion accurately predicts the fracture for a wide range of stress triaxialities from overall compression conditions to tensile with additional hydrostatic component related to different notched configurations.

Hydrogels consist of hydrophilic polymer networks dispersed in water. Many applications of hydrogels rely on their unique combination of solid-like mechanical behavior and water-like transport properties. If the temperature is lowered below 0 °C, however, hydrogels freeze and become rigid, brittle, and non-conductive. Here, a general class of hydrogels that do not freeze at temperatures far below 0 °C, while retaining high stretchability and fracture toughness, is demonstrated. These hydrogels are synthesized by adding a suitable amount of an ionic compound to the hydrogel. The present study focuses on tough polyacrylamide-alginate double network hydrogels equilibrated with aqueous solutions of calcium chloride. The resulting hydrogels can be cooled to temperatures as low as -57 °C without freezing. In this temperature range, the hydrogels can still be stretched more than four times their initial length and have a fracture toughness of 5000 J m-2 . It is anticipated that this new class of hydrogels will prove useful in developing new applications operating under a broad range of environmental and atmospheric conditions.

The muon decay parameter ${\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\ensuremath{'}\ensuremath{'}}$ has been determined in a measurement of the longitudinal polarization of positrons emitted from polarized and depolarized muons. The result, ${\ensuremath{\xi}}^{\ensuremath{'}\ensuremath{'}}=0.981\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}0.04{5}_{\text{stat}}\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}0.00{3}_{\text{syst}}$, is consistent with the Standard Model prediction of unity, and provides an order of magnitude improvement in the relative precision of this parameter. This value sets new constraints on exotic couplings beyond the dominant $V\text{\ensuremath{-}}A$ description of the leptonic weak interaction.