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International audience; More and more literature and practice recommend involving the public at the early stages of the policy cycle, i.e. issue identification, definition of the policy objectives and policy design. Policy design involves, among others, identifying solutions, ideas or alternatives which may address the policy objectives. Three main arguments are often put forward to advocate for the involvement of stakeholders, or the public, in policy design: a "user-centered " argument (i.e. for the policy to better meet people's priorities), an innovation argument (i.e. to conceive new solutions) and a collective argument (i.e. to identify collective actions and better tackle environmental problems). However, in both research and practice these arguments have been challenged. Research has insufficiently generated evidence of the influence of large-scale participation in policy design on resulting proposed actions. The objective of this paper is to analyze whether a large-scale participatory process leads to action proposals that fit people's priorities and that are innovative and collective. It draws from a land management and rural development policy design experiment conducted in six vulnerable areas of Tunisia. 4,300 direct participants were involved and 11,583 action proposals were collected. Our results highlight the influence of the local circumstances on innovation and the interest towards collective actions. Our results also show that whether policy design is made individually or in group influences the outcomes. The results also suggest that appropriate facilitation can help fostering more collective and innovative actions. We conclude the paper by opening up the idea of hybridizing policy design methods with methods from political and agricultural sciences in order to better understand the drivers and rationalities behind participants' action proposals.

Un dispositif partenarial mobilisant un outil de simulation paysagère, Ocelet, a été conçu comme support d’un exercice de prospective territoriale sur une intercommunalité de l’île de La Réunion où le mitage agricole représente un enjeu important. La démarche consiste à coconstruire, au sein d’une arène d’une vingtaine d’institutions, des scénarios d’évolution de l’étalement urbain. Pour favoriser ces interactions, des modèles contextualisés sont développés. Dans la démarche, le modèle remplit différentes fonctions au sein de l’arène, de l’initiation à la mise en débat de controverses. Les acteurs du projet s’opposent sur les facteurs concourant à l’étalement urbain et sur les moyens de le réguler. Si ces positions évoluent peu durant le projet, en revanche certaines visions ou certains partis pris ont pu être révisés. La démarche collaborative et le travail de prospective territoriale sont jugés de manière très positive par une large majorité de participants, pour leur rôle de moteurs d’apprentissage collectif., A collaborative framework using a spatially explicit modeling platform, Ocelet, has been designed as a territorial planning support tool in Reunion Island, where urban sprawl is a major issue. Urban development scenarios and models were constructed collectively by a group of specialists from some twenty institutions. The first group of workshops focused on a range of diverse viewpoints put forward by the different institutions on ways to resolve the problem of uncontrolled urban sprawl. Although this approach did not lead to radical changes in the opinions expressed by the stakeholders involved, a majority of participants were nonetheless positive in their assessment of the broad-based, participatory scenario used for the planning and assessment framework. The vast majority of participants recognized the value of participatory modeling for fostering dialogue and conditions conducive to collective social learning., Un aparato asociativo, que utiliza “Ocelet”, instrumento de simulación paisajístico, se creó como base de un ejercicio de prospección territorial, en una inter comuna de la Isla de la Reunión, donde la proliferación anárquica de construcciones agrícolas representa un problema importante. El proceso consiste en co-construir, en una cancha, una veintena de dispositivos, escenarios de la evolución de la expansión urbana. Modelos contextualizados se construyen con el fin de favorecer tales interacciones. En el proceso, el modelo llena diferentes funciones dentro de la cancha, desde la iniciación hasta el enfrentamiento de controversias. Los actores del proyecto se oponen sobre los factores de la expansión urbana y sobre su reglamentación. Bien que ciertas posiciones cambien poco durante el proyecto, otras visiones o prejuicios han sido revisados. La colaboración y el trabajo de prospección territorial son juzgados positivamente por la mayoría de los participantes, como motor de aprendizaje colectivo.

International audience; Geospatial information and its derived products, designed to contribute to public agricultural policy making, are not widely used in Africa. The infrastructure, training and skills are lacking, and research and development activities are dispersed and inadequate. More importantly, needs are not formalised and technological resources, driven by the industrialised countries, are ill-adapted to the characteristics of agricultural systems in Africa. Moreover, companies, institutions and projects require a stable environment to ensure operational services, relevant products and useful information. These co-constructed services emerge within long-term partnerships between researchers, consultancies and end users. Research thus offers new opportunities for using satellite imagery to document and explain agricultural transformation processes. Finally, lasting interdisciplinary skills networks are needed to facilitate methodological and thematic exchanges.

International audience; Les informations géospatiales et leurs produits dérivés, conçus pour contribuer à la définition des politiques publiques agricoles, sont peu utilisés en Afrique. Les infrastructures, la formation et les compétences manquent ; les activités de recherche et développement sont dispersées et insuffisantes. Mais, surtout, les besoins restent mal formalisés et l’offre technologique, impulsée par les pays industrialisés, est peu adaptée aux caractéristiques des agricultures africaines. Par ailleurs, pour que des services opérationnels produisent de l’information pertinente et utile, un environnement stable doit être garanti aux entreprises, aux institutions et aux projets. Ces services co-construits naissent dans le cadre d’un partenariat pérenne entre les chercheurs, les opérateurs chargés des études et les utilisateurs finaux. La recherche ouvre alors d’autres voies d’exploitation des images satellitaires pour documenter et expliciter les processus de transformation de l’agriculture. Enfin, des réseaux de compétences interdisciplinaires structurés sur le temps long sont nécessaires pour favoriser les échanges méthodologiques et thématiques.

International audience; In a context of fast land changes due to human activity, the old 'Malthus vs. Boserup' debate about human pressure on natural resources is more than ever a prevalent subject. We illustrate this debate with an example based on the Tuy Province in West Burkina Faso, which has known an important development these last fifteen years, as mainly observable in the major regression of its natural vegetation. The objective of this article is to question the possible future scenarios of this region, by using a spatial model to understand past land change mechanisms and prospect plausible future ways of development. In particular, the spatial model describes the vegetation clearance processes identified during field campaigns, which we used to draw prospective scenarios and assess their possible effect on natural vegetation evolution. The processing of remote sensing images helped us reveal that one quarter of the total study area was cleared during the last fourteen years. Surveys carried out in the field enabled the identification of the three main processes responsible for these changes: farm size expansion, creation of new farms due to family nuclearization and migrant settlement. The model was then built to reproduce these three processes, and was validated by comparison with the land use classification of remote sensing images. Our model was also used to explore past clearance mechanisms: we found that 90% of the clearance was shared equally between farm size expansion and nuclearization processes, the settlement of migrants being responsible for less than 10% of the clearance. Model outputs also showed a shift in the clearance schemes compared to ancient practices: land characteristics are no longer considered when land is cleared and now clearance also occurs in neighbouring villages with available lands. These results suggest that the region has finally evolved similarly to a Malthusian rationale, even if the past dynamics resulted from a complex combination of factors. Finally, we analysed several prospective scenarios to assess the impacts of i) different population evolutions (normal demographic growth, emigrations and demographic regulation), ii) the implementation of protected areas in each village, iii) an intensification of farming systems. Two possible solutions for reducing natural vegetation clearance in the region are discussed: Emigration to other regions or a demographic regulation accompanied with an intensification of agricultural systems. However, the question remains whether such changes can be accomplished rapidly enough to abate the pressing natural vegetation decrease threat and to maintain an acceptable livelihood in the region.

In a context of strong climatic and economic uncertainty in West Africa, agricultural statistics reveal interannual variations in the proportions of crops. The underlying causes of these variations remain, however, poorly documented although their understanding is essential for crop production monitoring and agricultural policy-related decision-support. Regional scale cropping plan fluctuations arise directly from multiple individual farmer decisions. The purpose of this study is to understand the decision-making processes involved when farmers choose their cropping plans, in order to assess the respective weight of the different factors underlying the observed fluctuations in cropped areas. The study zone is the Tuy Province, occupying around 6000 km2 in central-western Burkina Faso. An initial field work showed how farmers' decision-making processes depend on external factors. This led to a separation and prioritization of the decisions taken in response to the physiological needs of the family (primary objectives) from those taken in response to other needs (secondary objectives). Four decision-influencing external factors were identified: i) climate, ii) price of cash crops, iii) incentive measures and dissemination processes and iv) credits for inputs. Decision-making rules were then determined by combining the objectives with the external factors. A decision model built on these rules was applied to Tuy Province between 2002 and 2014 to simulate every year the decision-making process of each farmer depending on several influencing factors. The model was verified by annually comparing the proportions of each crop grown in each cultivated area with those recorded in the agricultural statistics. The annual weight of each of these factors was then assessed: over the study period, 55% of the cropping plans satisfied unavoidable primary needs (the factors involved being internal determinants and credit), and 45% concerned secondary objectives (influenced by prices and promotion drives). With this approach, we evaluated the weight of the price factor to be only 6%. This result did not tally with the literature where the price factor is seen as a major element influencing cropping plan decisions. It is then discussed and considered in the specific context of this study. Sixty percent of the areas planted in cotton were linked to the access to credit granted by the cotton company in the zone, and tallied with the primary objectives of the farmers. The farms were therefore fully dependent on the cotton company. This study also illustrates the merits of modelling to assess how the respective weights of factors change over time, and to provide some major methodological perspectives for using spatial models to strengthen and validate typologies and processes arising from field analysis.

This paper reflects on collaborative landscape research conducted in Reunion Island, an outermost region of the European Union. On this 2,500 km2 tropical island also considered a major international biodiversity hotspot, land-use planners must address important challenges, especially growing population densities and urban sprawl that cause important pressure on agricultural land and natural ecosystems. While progress has been made towards land-use zoning and planning at the island scale, entrenched interests and a lack of communication between the agricultural, urban and environmental sectors continue to hinder the design and implementation of integrated land-use plans at the local level. This paper presents an approach to territorial foresight where urban development scenarios and spatial models were co-constructed with a collective of institutional actors in order to facilitate dialogue on future urbanization patterns and impacts on landscapes. It describes how spatially explicit models and simulations of urban development, first used as demonstrators, have raised individual interests and expectations and facilitated the structuring of a collaborative research network. Models and scenarios were then questioned, redesigned collectively and used as boundary objects to facilitate a shift away from statistical and sectorial readings towards more territorialized and integrated perspectives. Analysing inputs, reactions and feedback from the actors involved in the research, this paper discusses the role and potential value of landscape modelling and simulation in mediating debates among planning stakeholders and creating social learning situations. (Resume d'auteur)

In the sub-humid part of Burkina Faso, population growth, migrations and new marketing opportunities have induced rapid land-use changes and social reorganization, leading to new approaches to natural resource management. The objective of this study was to evaluate tree biodiversity parameters in agroforestry parklands (scattered trees in crop land) as population increases and fallows become shorter. Out of about 100 tree species existing in the area, and 50 commonly found in traditional parklands, only 3 indigenous and 2 non-native species hold a significant importance for farmers, all for their fruits. No indigenous tree species are planted, but a few are protected when clearing the land. Planted cashew nut orchards develop rapidly and are seen as a land tenure guarantee and an important source of income. Given these facts, the perspectives for tree biodiversity management in farmers' land may appear bleak. Yet, the importance given by farmers to specific tree products demonstrates that trees do play a pa t in land development and farmers' strategies. Existing practices of farmers show potential for improved land-use and spatial patterning of the land, as revealed by emerging parklands and orchards. Our data do not confirm common statements that migrant farmers do not manage the land as sustainably as native farmers do. Rather than trying to conserve tree biodiversity as it is, researchers and developers should identify with farmers the complementarities between trees and farms and promote tree biodiversity through existing practices.

International audience; Conventional crop protection with pesticides has limitations such as resistance of pests to pesticides and faunal imbalance. Agroecological crop protection is an attractive alternative based on the principles of agroecology. We present here this strategy using the case of Cucurbitaceae flies, which are the most important agricultural pests in Réunion. Research has been carried out on the bioecology of these insects and on the effectiveness of agroecological techniques. The main points are the following: the number of species of vegetable flies increased in the southern summer. Adult flies spend more than 90 % of their time on nonhost plants, with specific circadian rhythms. Several original agroecological techniques were designed, such as sanitation using augmentoria; trap plants, e.g., maize; adulticide bait; and the creation of habitats for predatory arthropods. Local growers are very satisfied with the results. They have reduced insecticide use with substantial cost savings and they have observed a decrease in losses and a lower phytosanitary workload. The education and training of students, professionals, and the general public has been a major aspect of this project. Increased knowledge of flies and agroecological management strategies of their populations can now be combined with modeling tools to facilitate the extension of the program to other areas or for educational purposes. Practices are currently being extended to other areas of the island and other countries of the Indian Ocean. This project is both a significant milestone for organic farming in Réunion and a precedent for other initiatives aimed at reducing or eliminating pesticides.

In sub-Saharan Africa, trypanosomosis continue to be a major threat to animal health. They are transmitted by tsetse flies, and the risk of transmission depends on the spatial relations between the different elements of the pathogenic system (host-vector-parasite). Health/Environment relations were studied in an agro-pastoral area of Burkina Faso by collecting georeferenced information on parasitic, agro-ecological and socio-economic systems ; these data were examined with a Geographic Information System (GIS). An original cartographic method was applied to tsetse and cattle densities, using remote sensing and field data. High spatial resolution remote sensing tools and original modelling methods were used to detect the valley landscapes most favourable to tsetse flies and to describe land use by herds. The impact of trypanosomes appeared to depend largely on animal movements, watering practices and the degree of contact with riparian tsetse flies. Linkage of this spatial information allowed to identify "high-risk meeting points" and to target the vector control., Les trypanosomoses animales, transmises par les glossines (mouches tsé-tsé), constituent un enjeu de santé majeur en Afrique sub-saharienne. Les composantes spatiales des acteurs du système pathogène (hôte-vecteur-parasite) constituent le socle sur lequel repose le risque de transmission de la maladie. Une démarche originale de cartographie des densités de glossines et de bovins appliquée à une zone agro-pastorale du sud du Burkina Faso est mise en place, à partir de données de télédétection et à l'aide d'un système d'information géographique (SIC). Les biotopes des glossines sont replacés dans leur environnement au sein de «paysages» repérés sur l'image satellite. Les déplacements des troupeaux sont modélisés pour obtenir une carte de fréquentation de l'espace. Le croisement de ces informations aboutit à une modélisation de «paysages épidémiologique- ment dangereux», localisés et identifiés dans une perspective de lutte ciblée contre le vecteur et la maladie., Michel V., de La Rocque S., Michel J.-F., De Wispelaere G., Touré I., Augusseau X., Cuisance D. Modélisation de «paysage épidémiologiquement dangereux» par télédétection et SIG. In: L'information géographique, volume 65, n°1, 2001. pp. 73-80.

Chapitre 13; International audience; After explaining why agri-environmental measures (AEMs) can be regarded as payment for environmental services (PES), this chapter focuses on the governance issues arising from the introduction of AEMs in France. These issues are examined in several territorial contexts: a metropolitan region (Auvergne) and two overseas regions (Guadeloupe and Réunion). Analysis of the national governance of AEMs highlights the weak communication between the different administrations in charge of agriculture and environment. The design of the AEM instruments was led by a highly centralised administration, in cooperation with the majority farmers' union, promoting a mass mechanism in favour of farmers. At the regional level, agricultural stakeholders are not yet convinced of the effectiveness of the measures and seek above all to maintain their income. The three case studies underline the strategic role of intermediate actors in the implementation of AEMs at the local level.

A parasitological and entomological survey was conducted in the Sideradougou area (south of Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso) in order to identify transmission factors of African trypanosomosis. A total of 3600 tsetse flies (Glossina tachinoides, Glossina palpalis gambiensis) were captured along 120 km of linear gallery forest and half of them were dissected. PCR analysis was undertaken on parasitologically positive flies (161 G. tachinoides, 92 G. palpalis gambiensis) to characterize the different trypanosomes. All the results were integrated in a GIS (Geographical Information System). Spatial repartition of the characterized trypanosomes enabled to recognize different areas with specific patterns of infection. Relations with environmental factors are discussed.

En Europe, depuis trois décennies, la prise en compte des enjeux environnementaux dans les politiques agricoles se traduit, en partie, par la conception de Mesures agrienvironnementales (MAE), visant à promouvoir le changement de pratiques. En France, ces mesures ont été mobilisées dans différents modèles de contrats avec les agriculteurs, passant d’un paradigme basé sur la subvention de la multifonctionnalité d’une exploitation agricole à une compensation des surcoûts liés à l’adoption de nouvelles pratiques plus vertueuses au niveau des parcelles. Cet article aborde la mise en application de ce changement de paradigme et analyse l’opérationnalisation de ces mesures à la Guadeloupe et à la Réunion, petits territoires insulaires et régions ultrapériphériques européennes, qui se caractérisent par des modèles agricoles majoritairement productivistes, orientés vers l’export et largement soutenus par les politiques publiques. L’analyse présentée dans cet article montre comment, dans ces îles confrontées de façon aiguë aux enjeux environnementaux, et soumises aux normes européennes, les acteurs agricoles ont su adapter les dispositifs agrienvironnementaux pour maintenir leurs objectifs de productivité et de soutien aux filières dominantes. Ainsi, après avoir souscrit les mesures intégrées dans les dispositifs hybrides inspirés de la multifonctionnalité, la profession agricole s’est peu mobilisée pour contractualiser la dernière génération de MAE. Les observations montrent qu’il n’y a pas eu d’évolution significative dans la déclinaison opérationnelle des instruments de politique agrienvironnementale qui restent conçus et pilotés par les institutions agricoles. L’absence de coordination avec les acteurs de l’environnement et de l’aménagement constitue un frein à l’appropriation des enjeux environnementaux par les exploitations. De fait, la convergence de la production agricole et de la fourniture de services environnementaux ne peut être assurée dans une logique d’aménagement et de gouvernance de l’espace rural., Environmental stakes are partially tackled in European Agricultural Policy by promoting changes in farmers’ practices through agri-environmental measures (AEM). In France, these measures are implemented in various types of contracts between farmers and government agriculture offices. The rationale of these contracts has shifted from a farm multifunctionality-grant paradigm to a new paradigm of compensating the extracosts of specific environmental practices developed in farm plots. In this paper, we analyzed how this paradigm shift was put into practice. We studied the implementation of AEM in the Guadeloupe and Reunion Island, which are small islands and UE outermost regions. In these two islands, the agricultural productivist model is dominant, export-oriented, and actively supported by public policies. Although these islands face environmental stakes and are subject to the UE environmental standards, we showed that the agricultural stakeholders have adapted the various agri-environmental schemes in order to maintain the productivity of agriculture and the support to the dominant farming industry. In a first stage, farmers entered in the hybrid multifunctionality agreements and have subscribed the integrated measures. But in a second stage, farmers did not subscribe the latest generation of AEM. We observed that the operationalization of agri-environment policy schemes is utterly unchanged and that agricultural institutions still formulate and manage these schemes. But the lack of coordination between farming and environmental stakeholders prevents the appropriation of environmental issues by the farmers. Accordingly, this lack of coordination does not allow for the convergence of the agricultural production and the provision of environmental services in order to foster rural areas’ spatial planning and governance.

Les mesures agri-environnementales (MAE) ont été introduites comme mesures d'accompagnement de la réforme de la PAC de 1992. Elles ont ensuite connu des évolutions avec notamment l'introduction de MAE territorialisées (MAET) dans la programmation 2007- 2013. Parallèlement, les notions de services écosystémiques et paiements pour services environnementaux (PSE) émergent et leur usage se renforce, non seulement dans le milieu scientifique, mais également dans les arènes politiques, notamment internationales. Les MAE sont-elles un dispositif de politique publique qui favorise la fourniture de services écosystémiques ? Pour répondre à cette question de recherche, nous avons procédé dans un premier temps à une clarification des différentes acceptions des notions de services écosystémiques, environnementaux (SE) et paiements pour services environnementaux, puis par une analyse du degré de leur mise en politique à travers l'observation de la mise en oeuvre des MAE dans trois terrains d'étude (Auvergne, Réunion et Guadeloupe). La méthodologie repose sur une grille d'analyse de la gouvernance des dispositifs. Des entretiens semi-directifs ont été conduits au niveau national et sur les trois terrains d'étude. Les trois études de cas montrent que la contribution potentielle des MAE à la fourniture des services écosystémiques est très dépendante des processus de gouvernance territoriale et de la place des acteurs de l'environnement. Dans les cas comme la Guadeloupe et la Réunion, où le pilotage reste dominé par le secteur agricole, la dimension environnementale peine à être intégrée. En Auvergne, l'apparition d'opérateurs agro-environnementaux hors des acteurs habituels du secteur agricole (associations de protection de l'environnement, syndicats mixtes, collectivités territoriales, ONF...) est favorable à une meilleure intégration des services écosystémiques dans la conception et la mise en oeuvre des MAE. Les MAE ont été conçues sans référence aux SE et PSE à l'origine. On constate une évolution des discours vers l'idée d'une rémunération pour service rendu, mais cela ne se traduit pas dans la conception d'instruments de politique concrets. Le cas des MAE à obligation de résultats écologiques et non à obligation de moyens pourrait constituer les prémisses d'une meilleure intégration des écosystèmes dans les dispositifs MAE. Ceci implique de comprendre les fonctionnements des écosystèmes, connaitre les services qu'ils rendent, mais aussi les dégâts qu'ils subissent.

Les trypanosomoses animales demeurent des maladies parasitaires importantes, dominant la géographie de l'élevage en Afrique sub-saharienne, où elles entraînent des pertes économiques considérables. Pour que les méthodes de lutte soient économiquement compatibles avec les ressources techniques et financières des populations rurales et pour garantir la durabilité des acquis, les interventions doivent être ciblées sur les zones à fortes potentialités de développement et soumises aux plus fortes contraintes parasitaires. Face à la diversité des situations épidémiologiques, une approche globale du risque trypanosomien vis-à-vis du bétail a été entreprise pendant 4 années dans une zone agropastorale du Burkina Faso, infestée par deux espèces de glossines ripicoles et lieu d'un front pionnier actif d'agriculteurs. L'étude des facteurs discriminants de présence de ces glossines a été abordée, d'une part à travers des enquêtes entomologiques classiques (70 paramètres/point de sondage) et d'autre part avec l'appui de l'imagerie satellitale SPOT, pour aboutir à une méthode originale de segmentation des paysages de bas-fonds. La même méthode est appliquée aux savanes en vue d'une classification du niveau de l'emprise agricole. L'outil moléculaire est appliqué à Glossina palpalis gambiensis (microsatellites/structuration génétique). La PCR, en complément des techniques parasitologiques, a permis d'identifier les trypanosomes pour dresser une situation géoréférencée de la circulation des parasites pathogènes chez les glossines et le bétail. Un recensement exhaustif et géoréférencé des bovins, une typologie des producteurs et de leurs pratiques pastorales, et le recensement des points d'abreuvement ont conduit à décrire l'espace fréquenté par les bovins et donc l'interface avec les glossines. Les différentes couches d'information concernant le système pathogène (glossines/trypanosomes/bovins) mais aussi les facteurs d'environnement qui le modulent (paysages de bas-fonds et de savanes, espace agricole, occupation pastorale, etc.) sont intégrés dans un SIG pour révéler les sites épidémiologiquement les plus dangereux, qui ne représentent que 10 % de ce réseau hydrographique. La démarche vise à obtenir des indicateurs rapides et robustes de la situation "risques" par rapport à la situation "ressources" pour une aide à la décision. (Texte intégral)

16 p.; National audience; The objective of this paper is to present an approach for experimenting territorial prospective analysis based on spatial modelling. This approach is carried out in the framework of the DESCARTES project which aims at developing a spatial simulation tool to support the design and analysis of different scenarios for land-use allocation in Reunion Island in terms of environmental services. The spatial modelling tool is composed of two complementary applications: (i) the Ocelet modelling language and its land dynamics simulation environment, and (ii) the Margouill@ platform. The first demonstrator, a model of farm land consumption by urbanization, was developed and presented during workshops in order to test the role of the spatial simulation tool in support of a collaborative innovation process among stakeholders, and to foster new research on social learning, spatial simulation of environmental services, and scale change issues.; L'objectif de cet article est de présenter une démarche de construction d'un exercice de prospective territoriale basé sur un outil de modélisation spatiale. Cette démarche est mise en œuvre dans le cadre du projet ANR DESCARTES dont l'objectif est de construire un outil de simulation cartographique pour analyser différents scénarios d'affectation de l'usage des sols à l'Ile de La Réunion, en termes de services environnementaux. La plateforme de simulation cartographique est composée de deux applications complémentaires (i) le langage de modélisation Ocelet et son environnement de simulation de paysages dynamiques, et (ii) la plateforme Margouill@. Le développement puis la présentation, en atelier, d'un premier démonstrateur sur la consommation des terres agricoles par l'urbanisation a permis de tester l'outil cartographique comme support d'un processus d'innovation collective entre les parties prenantes, et d'ouvrir de nouveaux champs de recherche sur l'analyse de la démarche par les apprentissages, la spatialisation et la simulation prospective des services écosystémiques, et la prise en compte du changement d'échelle.