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Pharmaceuticals pose a major threat to the marine environment, and several studies have recently described their negative effects on marine organisms. Pharmaceutical compounds are constantly being released into aquatic ecosystems, and chronic exposure, even at low concentrations, may have a major impact on marine organisms. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the biological changes induced by one of the most widely used pharmaceuticals—paracetamol—in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis, after a long-term exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations. We present our data alongside and in comparison with results from a previous short-term exposure, to demonstrate the significance of exposure period on the effects of paracetamol in adult blue mussels. After 24 days of laboratory exposure, seven potential target genes were selected to examine toxicological effects in mussels’ gonads and possible disruptive effects on reproductive processes. The results show the modulation of some important reproduction-related genes: estrogen receptor-2 (ER2), vitelline envelope zona pellucida domain-9 (V9), and vitellogenin (VTG). Variations in mRNA expression of four other genes involved in apoptosis (HSP70, CASP8, BCL2, and FAS) are also highlighted. Histopathological alterations caused by paracetamol, together with neutral red retention time response in mussels’ hemocytes, are presented herein. Overall, this study highlights the exacerbated effects of low concentration of paracetamol after chronic exposure, similar to the damage induced by higher concentrations in a short exposure scenario, thus emphasizing the importance of length of exposure period when studying the effects of this substance. Additionally, this study also discusses the potential of paracetamol to inflict several major changes in the reproductive system of mussels and thus possibly affect the survival of populations. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11356-021-14136-6.

A growing body of literature suggests that pharmaceutical contamination poses an increasing risk to marine ecosystems. Paracetamol or acetaminophen is the most widely used medicine in the world and has recently been detected in seawater. Here, we present the results of 7 days' exposure of blue mussel adults to 40 ng/L, 250 ng/L and 100 μg/L of paracetamol. Histopathology shows that haemocytic infiltration is the most observed condition in the exposed mussels. The mRNA expression of VTG, V9, ER2, HSP70, CASP8, BCL2 and FAS in mussel gonads present different patterns of downregulation. VTG and CASP8 mRNA expression show downregulation in all exposed mussels, irrespective of sex. The V9, HSP70, BCL2 and FAS transcripts follow a concentration-dependent variation in gene expression and may therefore be considered good biomarker candidates. ER2 mRNA expression shows a downregulated trend, with a clearer dose-response relationship in males. In conclusion, this study suggests that paracetamol has the potential to alter the expression of several genes related to processes occurring in the reproductive system and may therefore impair reproduction in blue mussels.

Pharmaceuticals pose a major threat to the marine environment and several studies have recently described their negative effects on marine organisms. Pharmaceutical compounds are constantly being released into aquatic ecosystems and chronic exposure, even at low concentrations, may have impact on marine organisms. The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the biological changes induced by one of the most widely used pharmaceuticals – paracetamol – in the blue mussel Mytilus edulis, after a long-term exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations. We present our data alongside and in comparison with results from a previous short-term exposure, to demonstrate the significance of exposure period on the effects of paracetamol in adult blue mussels. After 24 days of laboratory exposure, seven potential target genes were selected to examine toxicological effects in mussels’ gonads and possible disruptive effects on reproductive processes. The results show the modulation of some important reproduction-related genes: estrogen receptor-2 (ER2), vitelline envelope zona pellucida domain-9 (V9) and vitellogenin (VTG). Variations in mRNA expression of four other genes involved in apoptosis (HSP70, CASP8, BCL2 and FAS) are also highlighted. Histopathological alterations caused by paracetamol, together with neutral red retention time response in mussels’ hemocytes, are presented herein. Overall, this study highlights the exacerbated effects of low concentration of paracetamol after chronic exposure, similar to the damage induced by higher concentrations in a short exposure scenario, thus emphasizing the importance of length of exposure period when studying the effects of this substance. Additionally, this study also discusses the potential of paracetamol to inflict several major changes on the reproductive system of mussels and thus possibly affect the survival of populations.

The occurrence of several aquatic contaminants, including pharmaceuticals, were investigated in seawater samples collected from effluent-dominated sites in Indonesia: 4 sites in Jakarta Bay and one on the north coast of Central Java. The data presented in this preliminary study provide a snapshot of seawater quality in these areas. Results show that nutrient parameters exceeded the Indonesian Standard Quality of Seawater limits, and some metals were also present. Interestingly, high concentrations of paracetamol were detected at Angke (610 ng/L) and Ancol (420 ng/L), both in Jakarta Bay. To date, this is the first study to report the presence of paracetamol (acetaminophen) in the coastal waters around Indonesia. The high concentrations detected, compared to other levels reported in scientific literature, raise concerns about the environmental risks associated with long-term exposure and, especially, the impact on nearby shellfish farms. Given pharmaceuticals' consideration as emerging contaminants, these data suggest further investigations are needed.

The capability of selected pharmaceuticals to act as nontraditional endocrine disrupting chemicals in the environment has been poorly documented. The widely prescribed antidiabetic metformin has the potential to accumulate and persist in water bodies, with unknown consequences for aquatic biota. This study reports the biological responses of a sentinel organism, common mussel Mytilus edulis, exposed to concentrations of metformin commonly found in the aquatic environment, coupled with heat stress. The results indicate that metformin has the potential to increase the vitellogenin mRNA expression, to inflict severe pathologies of the gonad and to destabilize the lysosomal membrane in the hemocytes. Overall, this article suggests that metformin should be considered an emerging contaminant of concern and further research should focus on its mechanisms of action.

Pharmaceutically active compounds have been considered contaminants of emerging concern, in response to evidence that these substances may adversely affect aquatic organisms. Here we expose mussels for 7 days to metformin, the most commonly prescribed anti-diabetes treatment, at a concentration of 40 μg/L and a high temperature of 20 °C. The apoptosis-related genes HSP70, CASP8, BCL2 and FAS showed variation in expression in gonadal tissue. The results suggest that complex interactions between these genes are modulating the onset of apoptotic changes such as atresia and follicle degeneration. The temperature induced apoptosis may be initiated by overexpression of CASP8. Conversely, metformin may induce apoptosis by suppressing the anti-apoptotic gene BCL2, thus promoting the process. Interestingly, apoptosis and follicle degeneration are likely FAS-mediated, following the synergistic effect of metformin and temperature. The potential of metformin to act as a non-traditional EDC, due to its impact on the reproductive system in mussels is discussed.

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis was used to examine the food sources and trophic structure of 17 fish species and six groups of benthic macroinvertebrates in a seagrass meadow in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. The seagrass, their associated epiphytes, sediment organic matter (SOM) and particulate organic matter (POM) were identified to be the food sources, with δ13C values ranging from −19.49 (POM) to −9.66‰ (seagrass). The δ13C of the 23 fauna taxa were between −18.57 (Arothron manilensis) and −11.62‰ (Protoreaster sp.). For five of the six groups of benthic macroinvertebrates, seagrass and their epiphytes contributed more than 69.4%. For 14 of the 17 fish species, seagrass and their epiphytes are the main contributors. For 15 of the 17 fishes, the trophic levels inferred from SIA are lower than those from the previously reported diet composition analysis. These findings show that seagrass and their epiphytes are consumed by most of the fish and benthic macroinvertebrates, and are importa...

Eight specimens of Meganthias kingyo were collected from Bitung, North Sulawesi, Indonesia between 2008 - 2010. The specimens were caught from about 70-150 m off Lembeh Island. M. kingyo differs from M. natalensis by having the following characteristics: pores lateral line scales (43 vs. 49); pectoral rays (16 vs. ii.14); body depth (47.1 vs. 51.9); head length (31.0 vs. 38.2), body depth (47.1 vs. 52.9), caudal peduncle depth (12.1 vs. 14.2), pectoral fin length (28.0 vs. 34.3), pelvic fin length (33.6 vs. 31.1), anal fin base length (19.4 vs. 22.2), caudal fin length (66.9 vs. 35.3) and longest dorsal fin ray (48.5 vs. 27.4). Previously, this species has been reported from Houzan-sone, off Miyako and Yaeyama Islands in Okinawa, Japan; and herein is recorded from off Lembeh Island, North Sulawesi, Indonesia.