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Carbon‐focused climate mitigation strategies are becoming increasingly important in forests. However, with ongoing biodiversity declines we require better knowledge of how much such strategies account for biodiversity. We particularly lack information across multiple trophic levels and on established forests, where the interplay between carbon stocks, stand age, and tree diversity might influence carbon–biodiversity relationships. Using a large dataset (>4600 heterotrophic species of 23 taxonomic groups) from secondary, subtropical forests, we tested how multitrophic diversity and diversity within trophic groups relate to aboveground, belowground, and total carbon stocks at different levels of tree species richness and stand age. Our study revealed that aboveground carbon, the key component of climate‐based management, was largely unrelated to multitrophic diversity. By contrast, total carbon stocks — that is, including belowground carbon — emerged as a significant predictor of multitrophic diversity. Relationships were nonlinear and strongest for lower trophic levels, but nonsignificant for higher trophic level diversity. Tree species richness and stand age moderated these relationships, suggesting long‐term regeneration of forests may be particularly effective in reconciling carbon and biodiversity targets. Our findings highlight that biodiversity benefits of climate‐oriented management need to be evaluated carefully, and only maximizing aboveground carbon may fail to account for biodiversity conservation requirements.

1. Plant diversity begets diversity at other trophic levels. While species richness is the most commonly used measure for plant diversity, the number of evolutionary lineages (i.e. phylogenetic diversity) could theoretically have a stronger influence on the community structure of co‐occurring organisms. However, this prediction has only rarely been tested in complex real‐world ecosystems. 2. Using a comprehensive multitrophic dataset of arthropods and fungi from a species‐rich subtropical forest, we tested whether tree species richness or tree phylogenetic diversity relates to the diversity and composition of organisms. 3. We show that tree phylogenetic diversity but not tree species richness determines arthropod and fungi community composition across trophic levels and increases the diversity of predatory arthropods but decreases herbivorous arthropod diversity. The effect of tree phylogenetic diversity was not mediated by changed abundances of associated organisms, indicating that evolutionarily more diverse plant communities increase niche opportunities (resource diversity) but not necessarily niche amplitudes (resource amount). 4. Our findings suggest that plant evolutionary relatedness structures multitrophic communities in the studied species‐rich forests and possibly other ecosystems at large. As global change non‐randomly threatens phylogenetically distinct plant species, far‐reaching consequences on associated communities are expected. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

The underlying processes of plant-microbe associations particularly their interactions with their mycorrhizal fungal partners have been extensively studied. However, considerably less is known about the consequences of tree-tree interactions on rooting zone soil microbiota when tree species of different mycorrhizal type (myco-type) grow together as mono and mixed myco-type mixtures along a tree diversity gradient.Using the MyDiv tree diversity experiment, where arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EcM) trees and their mixtures were planted in monocultures, two-species and four-species mixture plots, we investigated the interplay of target tree myco-type, myco-type mixture, tree diversity and rooting zone compartment (target tree dominated and its interaction zones with neighbour trees) on the rooting zone soil mycobiota employing meta-barcoding of the ITS2 rDNA fragment of the fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS).Our results revealed significant individual and interaction effects of tree myco-type, myco-type mixture and tree diversity but not rooting zone compartment on the fungal taxonomic and functional alpha and beta diversity. This implies intermingling of roots of target and neighbouring tree species there by reducing the target tree species effect in its rooting zone. As tree diversity increases, we found convergence of the fungal community in general, where the fungal community dissimilarity varies depending on the co-existing tree species myco-type and tree species diversity. Furthermore, the fungal community composition in the two and four species mixtures were consistently influenced by soil pH, whereas in the mixed multi-species stands basal respiration, N, PO4−, NO3− were found to be equally important unlike in AM and EcM multi-species stands. Comparative analysis of the fungal taxa specialisation between mono and mixed myco-type multi-species stands revealed that the mixed myco-type plots shared 23.5% (AM) and 19.7% (EcM) of the generali

The underlying processes of plant-microbe associations particularly their interactions with their mycorrhizal fungal partners have been extensively studied. However, considerably less is known about the consequences of tree-tree interactions on rooting zone soil microbiota when tree species of different mycorrhizal type (myco-type) grow together as mono and mixed myco-type mixtures along a tree diversity gradient.Using the MyDiv tree diversity experiment, where arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EcM) trees and their mixtures were planted in monocultures, two-species and four-species mixture plots, we investigated the interplay of target tree myco-type, myco-type mixture, tree diversity and rooting zone compartment (target tree dominated and its interaction zones with neighbour trees) on the rooting zone soil mycobiota employing meta-barcoding of the ITS2 rDNA fragment of the fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS).Our results revealed significant individual and interaction effects of tree myco-type, myco-type mixture and tree diversity but not rooting zone compartment on the fungal taxonomic and functional alpha and beta diversity. This implies intermingling of roots of target and neighbouring tree species there by reducing the target tree species effect in its rooting zone. As tree diversity increases, we found convergence of the fungal community in general, where the fungal community dissimilarity varies depending on the co-existing tree species myco-type and tree species diversity. Furthermore, the fungal community composition in the two and four species mixtures were consistently influenced by soil pH, whereas in the mixed multi-species stands basal respiration, N, PO4−, NO3− were found to be equally important unlike in AM and EcM multi-species stands. Comparative analysis of the fungal taxa specialisation between mono and mixed myco-type multi-species stands revealed that the mixed myco-type plots shared 23.5% (AM) and 19.7% (EcM) of the generali

Organismal functional strategies form a continuum from slow- to fast-growing organisms, in response to common drivers such as resource availability and disturbance. However, whether there is synchronisation of these strategies at the entire community level is unclear. Here, we combine trait data for >2800 above- and belowground taxa from 14 trophic guilds spanning a disturbance and resource availability gradient in German grasslands. The results indicate that most guilds consistently respond to these drivers through both direct and trophically mediated effects, resulting in a ‘slow-fast’ axis at the level of the entire community. Using 15 indicators of carbon and nutrient fluxes, biomass production and decomposition, we also show that fast trait communities are associated with faster rates of ecosystem functioning. These findings demonstrate that ‘slow’ and ‘fast’ strategies can be manifested at the level of whole communities, opening new avenues of ecosystem-level functional classification.

Invasive earthworms colonize ecosystems around the globe. Compared to other species’ invasions, earthworm invasions have received little attention. Previous studies indicated their tremendous effects on resident soil biota representing a major part of the terrestrial biodiversity. We investigated effects of earthworm invasion on soil microbial communities in three forests in North America by conducting DNA sequencing of soil bacteria, fungi, and protists in two soil depths. Our study shows that microbial diversity was lower in highly invaded forest areas. While bacterial diversity was strongly affected compared to fungi and protists, fungal community composition and family dominance were strongly affected compared to bacteria and protists. We found most species specialized on invasion in fungi, mainly represented by saprotrophs. Comparably, few protist species, mostly bacterivorous, were specialized on invasion. As one of the first observational studies, we investigated earthworm invasion on three kingdoms showing distinct taxa- and trophic level-specific responses to earthworm invasion.

To successfully conserve and restore agrobiodiversity, it is essential to understand the impact of multiple drivers and interlinkages across multiple taxa that occur above, across, and below the soil interface. Based on data from six agricultural landscapes in Central Germany, with 16 sampling plots per landscape, we used structural equation models to disentangle the impacts of climate, land-use, and soil factors on the diversity of multiple taxonomic groups. We expected belowground communities (soil bacteria and fungi) to be more driven by soil variables, mobile aboveground groups (wild bees, ground beetles) to be more driven by climate and land use, and vascular plants, that have an above- and belowground component, to respond to a combination of all factors.According to our expectations, climate and land-use variables had an important role in shaping aboveground and plant communities. In contrast to our expectations, soil characteristics were of lesser importance for belowground organisms. Moreover, climatic factors had a strong impact on the soil microbiome, but this effect was indirect, modulated by soil pH. We also found indications for cascading effects of environmental factors via interlinkages within and among the above- and belowground communities. Our results highlight the importance of direct and indirect effects of multiple drivers on the diversity of multiple taxonomic groups and support recent calls for a multifunctional approach for sustainable landscape management and nature restoration, suggesting to focus on the promotion of semi-natural habitats but also considering the climatic context.

Understanding the complex interactions between trees and fungi is crucial for forest ecosystem management, yet the influence of tree mycorrhizal types, species identity, and diversity on tree-tree interactions and their root-associated fungal communities remains poorly understood.Our study addresses this gap by investigating root-associated fungal communities of different arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EcM) tree species pairs (TSPs) in a subtropical tree diversity experiment, spanning monospecific, two-species, and multi-species mixtures, utilizing Illumina sequencing of the ITS2 region.The study reveals that tree mycorrhizal type significantly impacts the alpha diversity of root-associated fungi in monospecific stands. Meanwhile, tree species identity's influence is modulated by overall tree diversity. Tree-related variables and spatial distance emerged as major drivers of variations in fungal community composition. Notably, in multi-species mixtures, compositional differences between root fungal communities of AM and EcM trees diminish, indicating a convergence of fungal communities irrespective of mycorrhizal type. Interestingly, dual mycorrhizal fungal communities were observed in these multi-species mixtures.This research underscores the pivotal role of mycorrhizal partnerships and the interplay of biotic and abiotic factors in shaping root fungal communities, particularly in varied tree diversity settings, and its implications for effective forest management and biodiversity conservation.

Carbon-focused climate mitigation strategies are becoming increasingly important in forests. However, with ongoing biodiversity declines we require better knowledge of how much such strategies account for biodiversity. We particularly lack information across multiple trophic levels and on established forests, where the interplay between carbon stocks, stand age, and tree diversity might influence carbon–biodiversity relationships. Using a large dataset (>4600 heterotrophic species of 23 taxonomic groups) from secondary, subtropical forests, we tested how multitrophic diversity and diversity within trophic groups relate to aboveground, belowground, and total carbon stocks at different levels of tree species richness and stand age. Our study revealed that aboveground carbon, the key component of climate-based management, was largely unrelated to multitrophic diversity. By contrast, total carbon stocks—that is, including belowground carbon—emerged as a significant predictor of multitrophic diversity. Relationships were nonlinear and strongest for lower trophic levels, but nonsignificant for higher trophic level diversity. Tree species richness and stand age moderated these relationships, suggesting long-term regeneration of forests may be particularly effective in reconciling carbon and biodiversity targets. Our findings highlight that biodiversity benefits of climate-oriented management need to be evaluated carefully, and only maximizing aboveground carbon may fail to account for biodiversity conservation requirements.

Across the tree of life, organismal functional strategies form a continuum from slow- to fast-growing organisms, in response to common drivers such as resource availability and disturbance. However, the synchronization of these strategies at the entire community level is untested. We combine trait data for >2800 above- and belowground taxa from 14 trophic guilds spanning a disturbance and resource availability gradient in German grasslands. Most guilds consistently respond to these drivers through both direct and trophically-mediated effects, resulting in a "slow-fast" axis at the level of the entire community. Fast trait communities were also associated with faster rates of whole ecosystem functioning. These findings demonstrate that "slow" and "fast" strategies can be manifested at the level of whole ecosystems, opening new avenues of ecosystem-level functional classification.

Forest ecosystems are critical for their carbon sequestration potential. Increasing tree diversity has been shown to enhance both forest productivity and litter decomposition. Litter diversity increases litter decomposability by increasing the diversity of substrates offered to decomposers. However, the relative importance of litter decomposability and decomposer community in mediating tree diversity effects on decomposition remains unknown. Moreover, tree diversity modulation of litterfall spatial distribution, and consequently litter decomposition, has rarely been tested. We studied tree diversity effects on leaf litter decomposition and its mediation by the amount of litterfall, litter species richness and decomposability, and soil microorganisms in a large-scale tree diversity experiment in subtropical China. Furthermore, we examined how litter functional identity and diversity affect leaf litter decomposability. Finally, we tested how leaf functional traits, tree biomass, and forest spatial structure drive the litterfall spatial distribution. We found evidence that tree species richness increased litter decomposition by increasing litter species richness and the amount of litterfall. We showed that soil microorganisms in this subtropical forest perform 84–87% of litter decomposition. Moreover, changes in the amount of litterfall and microbial decomposition explained 19–37% of the decomposition variance. Additionally, up to 20% of the microbial decomposition variance was explained by litter decomposability, while litter decomposability itself was determined by litter functional identity, diversity, and species richness. Tree species richness increased litter species richness and the amount of litterfall (+200% from monoculture to eight-species neighborhood). We further demonstrated that the amount of species-specific litterfall increased with increasing tree proximity and biomass, and was modulated by leaf functional traits. These litterfall drivers increased th

Soil microbial communities play crucial roles in the earth’s biogeochemical cycles. Yet, their genomic potential for nutrient cycling in association with tree mycorrhizal type and tree-tree interactions remained unclear, especially in diverse tree communities. Here, we studied the genomic potential of soil fungi and bacteria with arbuscular (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EcM) conspecific tree species pairs (TSPs) at three tree diversity levels in a subtropical tree diversity experiment (BEF-China). The soil fungi and bacteria of the TSPs’ interaction zone were characterized by amplicon sequencing, and their subcommunities were determined using a microbial interkingdom co-occurrence network approach. Their potential genomic functions were predicted with regard to the three major nutrients carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) and their combinations. We found the microbial subcommunities that were significantly responding to different soil characteristics. The tree mycorrhizal type significantly influenced the functional composition of these co-occurring subcommunities in monospecific stands mixtures and two-tree-species mixtures but not in mixtures with more than three tree species (here multi-tree-species mixtures). Differentiation of subcommunities was driven by differentially abundant taxa producing different sets of nutrient cycling enzymes across the tree diversity levels, predominantly enzymes of the P (n = 11 and 16) cycles, followed by the N (n = 9) and C (n = 9) cycles, in monospecific stands and two-tree-species mixtures, respectively. Fungi of the Agaricomycetes, Sordariomycetes, Eurotiomycetes, and Leotiomycetes and bacteria of the Verrucomicrobia, Acidobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, and Actinobacteria were the major differential contributors (48% to 62%) to the nutrient cycling functional abundances of soil microbial communities across tree diversity levels. Our study demonstrated the versatility and significance of microbial subcommunities in differen

Carbon-focused climate mitigation strategies are becoming increasingly important in forests. However, with ongoing biodiversity declines we require better knowledge of how much such strategies account for biodiversity. We particularly lack information across multiple trophic levels and on established forests, where the interplay between carbon stocks, stand age, and tree diversity might influence carbon–biodiversity relationships. Using a large dataset (>4600 heterotrophic species of 23 taxonomic groups) from secondary, subtropical forests, we tested how multitrophic diversity and diversity within trophic groups relate to aboveground, belowground, and total carbon stocks at different levels of tree species richness and stand age. Our study revealed that aboveground carbon, the key component of climate-based management, was largely unrelated to multitrophic diversity. By contrast, total carbon stocks—that is, including belowground carbon—emerged as a significant predictor of multitrophic diversity. Relationships were nonlinear and strongest for lower trophic levels, but nonsignificant for higher trophic level diversity. Tree species richness and stand age moderated these relationships, suggesting long-term regeneration of forests may be particularly effective in reconciling carbon and biodiversity targets. Our findings highlight that biodiversity benefits of climate-oriented management need to be evaluated carefully, and only maximizing aboveground carbon may fail to account for biodiversity conservation requirements.

Climate change has devastating effect on wheat production thereof crop production might decline by 2030. Phosphorous-nutrient deficiency is another main limiting factor of reduced yield. Hence, there is a dire need to consider the wheat yield judiciously so the human requirements and nutrition balance can be sustained efficiently. Despite the great significance of biostimulants in sustainable agriculture, there is still lack of integrated technology encompassing the successful competitiveness of inoculated phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) in agriculture system in context to climatic conditions/meteorological factors and soil nutritional status. Therefore, present study reveals the modulation of integrated P-nutrient management approach to develop potential PSB consortia for recommended wheat varieties by considering respective soil health and agro-climatic conditions. The designed consortia were found to maintain adequate viability for up to nine months, verified through field emission scanning electron microscopy and viable count. Furthermore, a significant increase in grain yield (5-8%) and seed P (4%) content was observed in consortia-inoculated wheat plants with 20% reduced DAP application under net house conditions. Fluorescent in situ hybridization analysis of roots and amplification of gcd gene of Ochrobactrum sp. SSR indicated the survival and rhizosphere-competency of inoculated PSB. Categorical principal component analysis (CAT-PCA) showed a positive correlation of inoculated field-grown wheat varieties in native soils to grain yield, soil P content and precipitation for sites belong to irrigated plains while seed P content, soil organic matter and number of tillers for site belong to dry mountains. However, the impact of inoculation at sites belong to the Indus delta was found significantly correlated to soil K content, EC and temperature. Additionally, significant increase in grain yield (15 %) and seed P (14%) content was observed in inoculated whe

Increasing pressure on land resources necessitates landscape management strategies that simultaneously deliver multiple benefits to numerous stakeholder groups with competing interests. Accordingly, we developed an approach that combines ecological data on all types of ecosystem services with information describing the ecosystem service priorities of multiple stakeholder groups. We identified landscape scenarios that maximize the overall ecosystem service supply relative to demand (multifunctionality) for the whole stakeholder community, while maintaining equitable distribution of ecosystem benefits across groups. For rural Germany, we show that the current landscape composition is close to optimal, and that most scenarios that maximize one or a few services increase inequities. This indicates that most major land-use changes proposed for Europe (for example, large-scale tree planting or agricultural intensification) could lead to social conflicts and reduced multifunctionality. However, moderate gains in multifunctionality (4%) and equity (1%) can be achieved by expanding and diversifying forests and de-intensifying grasslands. More broadly, our approach provides a tool for quantifying the social impact of land-use changes and could be applied widely to identify sustainable land-use transformations.

Gut microbiome communities have a significant impact on bee health and disease and have been shown to be shaped by a variety of factors, including exposure to pesticides and inhive chemicals. However, it is unknown whether pesticide exposure affects the coexistence and cross-kingdom network parameters of bee gut microbiome communities because microbes may compete in the gut environment under different stressors. Therefore, we conducted additional analysis of the microbiome data from our previous study in which we discovered that exposure to two novel insecticides flupyradifurone (FPF) and sulfoxaflor (Sulf) or/and a fungicide, azoxystrobin (Azoxy) caused dysbiosis of bee gut microbiota that was associated with an increase in the relative abundance of opportunistic pathogens such as Serratia marcescens. We investigated for the first time the potential cross-kingdom fungal-bacterial interactions using co-occurrence pattern correlation and network analysis. We discovered that exposure to FPF or Sulf alone or in combination with Azoxy fungicide influenced the co-existence patterns of fungal and bacterial communities. Significant differences in degree centrality, closeness centrality, and eigenvector centrality distribution indices were also found in single and double-treatment groups compared to controls. The effects of FPF and Sulf alone on cross-kingdom parameters (bacterial to fungal node ratio, degree of centrality, closeness centrality, and eigenvector centrality) were distinct, but this was reversed when they were combined with Azoxy fungicide. The fungal and bacterial hub taxa identified differed, with only a few shared hubs across treatments, suggesting microbial cross-kingdom networks may be disrupted differently under different stressors. Our findings add to our understanding of pesticide effects on the bee gut microbiome and bee health in general, while also emphasizing the importance of cross-kingdom network analysis in future microbiome research.

Carbon‐focused climate mitigation strategies are becoming increasingly important in forests. However, with ongoing biodiversity declines we require better knowledge of how much such strategies account for biodiversity. We particularly lack information across multiple trophic levels and on established forests, where the interplay between carbon stocks, stand age, and tree diversity might influence carbon–biodiversity relationships. Using a large dataset (>4600 heterotrophic species of 23 taxonomic groups) from secondary, subtropical forests, we tested how multitrophic diversity and diversity within trophic groups relate to aboveground, belowground, and total carbon stocks at different levels of tree species richness and stand age. Our study revealed that aboveground carbon, the key component of climate‐based management, was largely unrelated to multitrophic diversity. By contrast, total carbon stocks—that is, including belowground carbon—emerged as a significant predictor of multitrophic diversity. Relationships were nonlinear and strongest for lower trophic levels, but nonsignificant for higher trophic level diversity. Tree species richness and stand age moderated these relationships, suggesting long‐term regeneration of forests may be particularly effective in reconciling carbon and biodiversity targets. Our findings highlight that biodiversity benefits of climate‐oriented management need to be evaluated carefully, and only maximizing aboveground carbon may fail to account for biodiversity conservation requirements.