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Dendritic spines are the major loci of synaptic plasticity and are considered as possible structural correlates of memory. Nonetheless, systematic manipulation of specific subsets of spines in the cortex has been unattainable, and thus, the link between spines and memory has been correlational. We developed a novel synaptic optoprobe, AS-PaRac1 (activated synapse targeting photoactivatable Rac1), that can label recently potentiated spines specifically, and induce the selective shrinkage of AS-PaRac1-containing spines. In vivo imaging of AS-PaRac1 revealed that a motor learning task induced substantial synaptic remodelling in a small subset of neurons. The acquired motor learning was disrupted by the optical shrinkage of the potentiated spines, whereas it was not affected by the identical manipulation of spines evoked by a distinct motor task in the same cortical region. Taken together, our results demonstrate that a newly acquired motor skill depends on the formation of a task-specific dense synaptic ensemble., Optogenetics is a powerful tool for controlling neuronal action potentials (1,2), and has been used to demonstrate the crucial role of cell assemblies in representing memory traces (3). However, owing [...]

Invasive cell migration through tissue barriers requires pericellular remodelling of extracellular matrix (ECM) executed by cell-surface proteases, particularly membrane-type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP/MMP-14). Using time-resolved multimodal microscopy, we show how invasive HT-1080 fibrosarcoma and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells coordinate mechanotransduction and fibrillar collagen remodelling by segregating the anterior force-generating leading edge containing β1 integrin, MT1-MMP and F-actin from a posterior proteolytic zone executing fibre breakdown. During forward movement, sterically impeding fibres are selectively realigned into microtracks of single-cell calibre. Microtracks become expanded by multiple following cells by means of the large-scale degradation of lateral ECM interfaces, ultimately prompting transition towards collective invasion similar to that in vivo. Both ECM track widening and transition to multicellular invasion are dependent on MT1-MMP-mediated collagenolysis, shown by broad-spectrum protease inhibition and RNA interference. Thus, invasive migration and proteolytic ECM remodelling are interdependent processes that control tissue micropatterning and macropatterning and, consequently, individual and collective cell migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acquisition of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) activity is temporally associated with increased migration and invasiveness of cancer cells. ProMMP-2 activation requires multimolecular complex assembly involving proMMP-2, membrane type 1-MMP (MT1-MMP, MMP14), and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP2). Because transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) promotes tumor invasion in advanced squamous cell carcinomas, the role of TGF-β1 in the regulation of MMP activity in a cellular model of invasive oral squamous cell carcinoma was examined. Treatment of oral squamous cell carcinoma cells with TGF-β1 promoted MMPdependent cell scattering and collagen invasion, increased expression of MMP-2 and MT1-MMP, and enhanced MMP-2 activation. TGF-β1 induced concomirant activation of ERK½ and p38 MAPK, and kinase inhibition studies revealed a negative regulatory role for ERK½ in modulating acquisition of MMP-2 activity. Thus, a reciprocal effect on proMMP-2 activation was observed whereupon blocking ERK½ phosphorylation promoted proMMP-2 activation and MT1-MMP activity, whereas inhibiting p38 MAPK activity decreased proteolytic potential. The cellular mechanism for the control of MT1-MMP catalytic activity involved concurrent reciprocal modulation of TIMP-2 expression by ERK½ and p38 MAPKs, such that inhibition of ERK½ phosphorylation decreased TIMP-2 production, and downregulation of p38 MAPK activity enhanced TIMP-2 synthesis. Further, p38 MAPK inhibition promoted ERK½ phosphorylation, providing additional evidence for cross-talk between MAPK pathways. These observations demonstrate the complex reciprocal effects of ERK½ and p38 MAPK in the regulation of MMP activity, which could complicate the use of MAPK-specific inhibitors as therapeutic agents to down-regulate the biologic effects of TGF-β1 on pericellular collagen degradation and tumot invasion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invadosomes are actin-rich membrane protrusions that degrade the extracellular matrix to drive tumor cell invasion. Key players in invadosome formation are c-Src and Rho family GTPases. Invadosomes can reassemble into circular rosette-like superstructures, but the underlying signaling mechanisms remain obscure. Here we show that Src-induced invadosomes in human melanoma cells (A375M and MDA-MB-435) undergo rapid remodeling into dynamic extracellular matrix-degrading rosettes by distinct G protein-coupled receptor agonists, notably lysophosphatidic acid (LPA; acting through the LPA1 receptor) and endothelin. Agonist-induced rosette formation is blocked by pertussis toxin, dependent on PI3K activity and accompanied by localized production of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate, whereasMAPKand Ca2+ signaling are dispensable. Using FRET-based biosensors, we show that LPA and endothelin transiently activate Cdc42 through Gi, concurrent with a biphasic decrease in Rac activity and differential effects on RhoA. Cdc42 activity is essential for rosette formation, whereas G12/13-mediated RhoA-ROCK signaling suppresses the remodeling process. Our results reveal aGi-mediated Cdc42 signaling axis by which G protein-coupled receptors trigger invadosome remodeling, the degree of which is dictated by the Cdc42-RhoA activity balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Importance: The bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is responsible for a variety of chronic human infections. Even in the absence of identifiable resistance mutations, this pathogen can tolerate lethal antibiotic doses through phenotypic strategies like biofilm formation and metabolic quiescence. In this study, we determined that P. aeruginosa maintains greater metabolic activity in the stationary phase compared to the model organism, Escherichia coli , which has traditionally been used to study fluoroquinolone antibiotic tolerance. We demonstrate that hallmarks of E. coli fluoroquinolone tolerance are not conserved in P. aeruginosa , including the timing of cell death and necessity of the SOS DNA damage response for survival. The heightened sensitivity of stationary-phase P. aeruginosa to fluoroquinolones is attributed to maintained transcriptional and reductase activity. Our data suggest that perturbations that suppress transcription and respiration in P. aeruginosa may actually protect the pathogen against this important class of antibiotics., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Recent developments in optogenetics have extended optical control of signaling to intracellular proteins, including Rac, a small G protein in the Rho family. A blue light-sensing LOV (light, oxygen, or voltage) domain derived from Avena sativa (oat) phototropin was fused to the N-terminus of a constitutively active mutant of Rac, via an α-helix (Jα) that is conserved among plant phototropins. The fused LOV domain occluded binding of downstream effectors to Rac in the dark. Exposure to blue light caused a conformational change of the LOV domain and unwinding of the Jα helix, relieving steric inhibition. The LOV domain incorporates a flavin as the photon-absorbing cofactor and can be activated by light in a reversible and repeatable fashion. In cultured cells, global illumination with blue light rapidly activated Rac and led to cell spreading and membrane ruffling. Localized and pulsed illumination generated a gradient of Rac activity and induced directional migration. In this chapter, we will describe the techniques in detail and present some examples of applications of using photoactivatable Rac (PA-Rac) in living cells.

Signaling networks in living systems are coordinated through subcellular compartmentalization and precise timing of activation. These spatiotemporal aspects ensure the fidelity of signaling while contributing to the diversity and specificity of downstream events. This is studied through development of molecular tools that generate localized and precisely timed protein activity in living systems. To study the molecular events responsible for cytoskeletal changes in real time, we generated versions of Rho family GTPases whose interactions with downstream effectors is controlled by light. GTPases were grafted to the phototropin LOV (light, oxygen, or voltage) domain (Huala, E., Oeller, P. W., Liscum, E., Han, I., Larsen, E., and Briggs, W. R. (1997). Arabidopsis NPH1: A protein kinase with a putative redox-sensing domain. Science278, 2120-2123.) via an alpha helix on the LOV C-terminus (Wu, Y. I., Frey, D., Lungu, O. I., Jaehrig, A., Schlichting, I., Kuhlman, B., and Hahn, K. M. (2009). A genetically encoded photoactivatable Rac controls the motility of living cells. Nature461, 104-108.). The LOV domain sterically blocked the GTPase active site until it was irradiated. Exposure to 400-500nm light caused unwinding of the helix linking the LOV domain to the GTPase, relieving steric inhibition. The change was reversible and repeatable, and the protein could be returned to its inactive state simply by turning off the light. The LOV domain incorporates a flavin as the active chromophore. This naturally occurring molecule is incorporated simply upon expression of the LOV fusion in cells or animals, permitting ready control of GTPase function in different systems. In cultured single cells, light-activated Rac leads to membrane ruffling, protrusion, and migration. In collectively migrating border cells in the Drosophila ovary, focal activation of photoactivatable Rac (PA-Rac) in a single cell is sufficient to redirect the entire group. PA-Rac in a single cell also rescues the phenotype caused by loss of endogenous guidance receptor signaling in the whole group. These findings demonstrate that cells within the border cell cluster communicate and are guided collectively. Here, we describe optimization and application of PA-Rac using detailed examples that we hope will help others apply the approach to different proteins and in a variety of different cells, tissues, and organisms., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)