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Vote allocations in the Council of the European Union (EU) are a crucial issue, especially in view of the increased use of qualified majority votes (QMV) and forthcoming significant rounds of EU enlargement. This article studies the distribution of votes in the Council from the first enlargement of the European Community (EC) in 1973 through to the present. The article theoretically deduces a formula that explains vote allocation on the basis of population size. The relationship between population and weighted votes is expressed by an exponential function. The article also illustrates to what extent the new formula agreed on at the Nice EU Summit deviates from the earlier one, by estimating changes in the relevant parameters. Razdelitev glasov v Svetu Evropske unije (EU) je bistvenega pomena za EU, še posebej glede na povečano uporabo glasovanja s kvalificirano večino in pomembnost prihodnjih krogov širitve EU. Zato članek proučuje razdelitev glasov v Svetu od prve širitve Evropske skupnosti leta 1973 do danes. Članek teoretsko izpelje formulo, ki pojasnjuje razdelitev glasov s številom prebivalstva. Odnos med številom prebivalstva in ponderiranjem glasov je izražen z eksponentno funkcijo. Članek z ocenjevanjem sprememb po pomembnih parametrih tudi prikazuje, koliko nova formula, ki je bila sprejeta na vrhu v Nici, odstopa od prejšnjih.

This paper presents the results of in vitro photodynamic therapy assays on RKO and HCT-15 cell lines. The envisaged implementation is in autonomous medical microdevices, such as endoscopic capsules for clinical treatment of several types of gastrointestinal tract tumors. Because of their very limited device volume, light fluence and fluence rate needed to destroy tumor cells should be minimized. Foscan or meta-tetra(hydroxyphenyl)chlorin (mTHPC) is used as a photosensitizer. The experimental results show that a small amount of mTHPC (0.15 mg/kg) and light fluence (5–20 J/cm2) is sufficient to obtain significant photodynamic activity. An array of LEDs with peak transmittance at 652 nm is used as a portable light source for the maximum quantum efficiency in producing singlet oxygen. Irradiation to a light fluence between 2.5 and 10 J/cm2 is achieved by an increased exposure time at an 11 mW/cm2 light fluence rate, while mTHPC concentrations of 0.5, 1, 5, and 10 µg/mL are used. The experimental results show that decreased cell viability (down to 30%) can be obtained for 1–5 µg/mL of mTHPC concentrations and 2.5 J/cm2 of light fluence. Such light fluence and light fluence rate are compatible with the endoscopic capsules batteries., This work was supported in part by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) with the reference project under Grant UID/EEA/04436/2013, and in part by FEDER funds through the COMPETE 2020 with the reference project under Grant POCI-01-0145-FEDER006941. The work of J. A. Rodrigues was supported by FCT under Grant SFRH/BD/103643/2014. The work of R. Amorim was supported by FCT under Grant SFRH/BD/98002/2013.

A novel method for measuring the viscosity of gases is introduced here, that uses a parallel-plate capacitive device, electrostatically actuated to pull-in. In welldefined actuation and damping conditions, the pull-in time is proportional to viscosity of the gas medium between the plates, since viscosity determines the damping level. MEMS structures have been fabricated to experimentally verify the method of using pull-in time to measure viscosity, and the results are encouraging. Different pure gases and gaseous mixtures, common in the natural gas industry, have been tested and the approached proved to be very sensitive (2000 μs/μPa.s) and the measured pull-in time variation with viscosity presents good linearity., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)

In this paper we present a method for closed-loop operation of pull-in time accelerometers. Accelerometers based on the measurement of the pull-in time of movable parallel-plates MEMS structures have already demonstrated very good resolution capabilities, with low requirements on the capacitive readout. However, open-loop operation delivers very low dynamic range and highly non-linear response. The closed-loop approach relies on electrostatic feedback using counter-actuation electrodes opposite to the pull-in direction and although the control algorithm used was very simple, the dynamic range has been effectively extended and the linearity improved., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)

Pull-in time based accelerometers present very high resolutions. One of its most important features is the detection capability bottleneck due to the MEMS structure thermalmechanical noise rather than the measurement/transduction mechanism. A study of the intervenient noise sources is presented in this paper. MEMS structures fabricated on the SOIMUMPs process were used and a relatively high noise was measured, which, considering the analysis performed, was attributed to environmental vibrations that should be prevented in future experiments. The analysis supports the low-noise characteristics of the pull-in time accelerometer., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)

The pull-in time of electrostatically actuated parallel-plate microstructures enables the realization of a high-sensitivity accelerometer that uses time measurement as the transduction mechanism. The key feature is the existence of a metastable region that dominates pull-in behavior, thus making pull-in time very sensitive to external accelerations. Parallel-plate MEMS structures have been designed and fabricated using a SOI micromachining process (SOIMUMPS) for the implementation of the accelerometer. This paper presents the experimental characterization of the microdevices that validates the concept and the analytical models used. The accelerometer has a measured resolution of 0.25 μs/μg and an estimated mechanical-thermal noise of 2.8 μg/VHz. Since the bandwidth of the sensor is directly related to the pull-in time (BW = 2/tpi = 180 Hz), the total measured noise floor of 400 μg (110 μs) suggests that the main noise source comes from the building vibrations.

The healthcare sector is nowadays one of the most dynamic and where the novelty is a strategic and operational imperative. The possibility of increase the quantity and quality of clinical analysis, performed with instantaneous results and outside the clinical laboratories, contributes to a better quality in the health care services and also a better efficiency in the clinical and administrative processes [1]. This possibility can be achieved with the presented lab-on-a-chip for spectrophotometric analysis of biological fluids. It allows the selective measurement of the concentration of several biomolecules in biological fluids, with instantaneous results, at any location, with small quantities of reagents and samples and with low-cost. That measurement is based on colorimetric detection by the optical absorption in a part of the visible spectrum defined by the reaction of the specific biomolecule with a specific reagent. The device comprises a highly efficient and selective optical filtering and colorimetric detection system. This system allows the measurement with a regular white light illumination, thus avoiding the use of complex and expensive analysis systems like the ones that comprise spectrophotometers, for example. This feature highly facilitates portability and ensures analysis within consultation time, at a patient house (allowing a first trial) and in clinical laboratories or hospitals., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) SFRH/BD/1281/2000 Escola de Engenharia da Universidade do Minho - Projecto IN2TEC. Centro Algoritmi da Universidade do Minho

This paper describes a three-dimensional fluid dynamic model that is suitable for accurate simulation of on-chip liquid handling and mixing. The fluidic die (or mixer) is an integrated part of a biological microsystem for biological fluids analysis. It is designed for enabling a mixing process based on diffusion, which allows an easy-to-fabricate and low-cost mixer. The fabrication is based on planar technology using IC-compatible lithography. Computer simulations have been carried out to analyze the details of the flow and the diffusion in the mixer in order to derive the appropriate design criteria for the layout. The mixer has been fabricated using glass micro-machining with SU-8 techniques and wafer-to-glass bonding. Its performance is successfully demonstrated for serum albumin concentration detection., Escola de Engenharia da Universidade do Minho - Projecto IN2TEC. Centro Algoritmi da Universidade do Minho.

An integrated optical detection microsystem, which includes photodetectors and a light-to-frequency converter for readout, is designed and fabricated in a standard CMOS process without extra masks. This detection microsystem is designed for use in biological microsystems for fluids analysis. The application is in the low-cost concentration measurement of biomolecules in biological fluids, by the optical absorption in a part of the visible spectrum defined by the specific molecule. Signals proportional to the intensity of the light transmitted through the biological fluid are available at the output in the form of bit streams, which allows simple computer interfacing. The quantitative measurement of uric acid in urine is successfully demonstrated. The photodiode responsivity is 224 mA/W at lambda = 495 nm (the wavelength at which the uric acid has its absorption maximum). The optical system sensitivity is 1 kHz/Wm-2 at lambda = 670 nm (using the TLS230 from Texas Instruments as reference)., Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) -SFRH/BD/1281/2000, POCTI/33747/ESE/1999. FEDER

This paper describes a fluid dynamic model that is suitable for accurate simulation of the on-chip liquid handling and mixing. The fluidic die (or mixer) is an integrated part of a biological microsystem for biological fluids analysis. It is designed for enabling a mixing process driven by diffusion, which allows an easy-to-fabricate and low-cost mixer. The fabrication is based on planar technology using OIC compatible lithography, which yields narrow channels in the vertical direction. Computer simulations have been carried out to analyze the details of the flow and the diffusion in the mixer in order to derive the appropriate design criteria for the layout. The mixer has been fabricated using glass micromachining and wafer-to-glass bonding. The performance is demonstrated using the fast-reaction of infinityTM uric acid reagent with urine samples., Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia - SFRH/BD/1281/2000, POCTI/33747/ESE/1999. FEDER.

This paper describes a 64 pixels X-ray imager architecture and fabrication process. The imager is composed by a 8×8 photodiodes array, fabricated in CMOS process, and an array of wells £lled with scintillating crystals. A thick-£lm of aluminum is etched in order to achieve square wells with 500 um depth. The wells are filled with CsI:Tl scintillating crystals and placed above the photodiodes. The scintillating crystals convert the X-ray energy into visible light, which is guided into the photodiodes by the re¤ective aluminum walls, avoiding crosstalk between adjacent detectors. Usually, the spatial resolution of the scintillating x-rays detectors is identical to the scintillators thickness. By using the light guides, the scintillator thickness can be adjusted in order to achieve optimal absorption ef£ciency, since the spatial resolution is established by the pixel size (200 um side).

This paper compares two x-ray detectors fabricated using two different technologies: one is based on a bulk micromachined silicon photodetector and the other is based on a standard CMOS photodetector. The working principle of the two detectors is similar: a scintillating layer of CsI:Tl is placed above the photodetector, so the x-rays are first converted into visible light (560 nm) which is then converted into an electrical signal by the photodetector. The different aspects of the fabrication and the experimental results of both x-ray detectors are presented and discussed., This work was supported by The Foundation of Science and Technology, Portugal, FCT-CTM/POCTI/33751/1999; Grant-BD SFRH/BD/1296/2000.

This paper reports a biosystem (biological system) for analyzing biochemical substances in biological fluids. Rather than one channel, it comprises 16 highly selective optical channels that enable the measurement of the concentration of 16 different biochemical substances. An array of 16 optical filters with high reflectivity and low absorption loss has been designed using dielectric films. Each filter is sensitive in a single wavelength with a FWHM (Full Width Half Maximum) < 5 nm and peak intensity > 52%. A commercially available band pass optical filter with a band pass wavelength in 450 600 nm is used to enable the use of a white light source for biosystem illumination. Preliminary tests with a single channel are successfully demonstrated., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) - SFRH/BD/1281/2000, POCTI/33747/ESE/ /1999), FEDER.

This paper describes a pixel array for x-rays imaging consisting in 400 um x 400 um photodiodes fabricated in CMOS technology, with an A/D converter for each one. Above the photodiodes, an array of scintillating CsI:Tl crystals are placed. So, the x-ray energy is first converted to visible light by the scintillating crystals which is then detected by the photodiodes. The photocurrent produced by each photodiode is finally converted to a digital form by a sigma-delta analog to digital converter. The sigma-delta a/d converter uses 18 minimum-size MOSFETs and one capacitor. 8 to 10 bits of resolution can be achieved., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)CTM/ POCTI/ 33751/ 1999; Grant-BD SFRH/ BD/ 1296/ 2000.

This paper describes a biosystem (biological system) used to measure the concentration of biological substances in urine, serum, plasma or cerebrospinal fluid. Rather than just one channel, it comprises 16 optical-channels that enable the measurement of the concentration of 16 different biological substances. An array of 16 optical filters based on Fabry-Perot thin-films optical resonators has been designed. Each optical-channel is sensitive in a single wavelength with a Full-Width-Half-Maximum (FWHM) of 7 nm. The filter fabrication requires only 4 masks, used with different etch time. A commercially available band-pass optical filter with a band-pass wavelength in 450-650 nm is used. The biosystem requires only a white light source for illumination due the use of selective optical filters., Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia -SFRH/BD/1281/2000, POCTI/33747/ESE/1999. FEDER.

This paper describes a lab-on-a-chip for measuring uric acid in serum, plasma or urine. The lab-on-a-chip is composed by two dies: one is fabricated in polystyrene and contains the microchannels and the other is fabricated through a CMOS process and contains the photodetector and readout electronics. The uric acid concentration is measured by using a mixture of 14 µl of infinityTM uric acid reagent with 0.25 µl of sample. The achieved sensitivity is 0.33 mg/dl (±0.6% of human being urine values), with a 1 mm lightpath. Using an optical absorption method, a maximum peak at wavelength λ = 494 nm, is detected., Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia - SFRH/BD/1281/2000, POCTI/33747/ESE/1999. FEDER.

This paper describes a pixel imaging array consisting in 400 um x 400 um photodiodes fabricated in CMOS technology. Above the photodiodes, an array of scintillating CsI:Tl crystals are placed. The scintillating crystals are encapsulated in aluminum walls forming a light path to guide the produced visible light into the photodiodes. So, the x-ray energy is first converted into visible light which is then detected by the photodiode at the end of each light guide. The scintillator is 800 um thick, absorbing almost all of 20 keV x-ray photons. Usually, the spatial resolution of the scintillating x-rays detectors is identical to the scintillator thickness. By using the light guides, the scintillator thickness can be increased, without decreasing the spatial resolution. The increase of the scintillator thickness is desirable in order to increase the x-rays absorption efficiency. Tests carried out on the system show very promising results near 20 keV., This work was supported by The Foundation of Science and Technology, Portugal, FCT-CTM/POCTI/33751/1999; Grant-BD SFRH/BD/1296/2000.