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Conventional heat carrier liquids have demonstrated remarkable enhancement in heat and mass transfer when nanoparticles were suspended in them. These liquid-nanoparticle suspensions are now known as Nanofluids. However the relationship between nanoparticles and the degree of enhancement is still unclear, thus hindering the large scale manufacturing of them. Understanding of the energy and flow behaviour of nanofluids is therefore of wide interest in both academic and industrial context. In this paper we first model the heat transfer of a nanofluid in convection in a circular tube at macro-scale by using CFD code of OpenFoam. Then we zoon into nano-scale behaviour using the Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulation. In the latter we considered a system of water and Gold nanoparticles. A systematic increase of convective heat transfer was observed with increasing nanoparticle concentration. A maximum enhancement of 7.0% was achieved in comparison to base fluid water. This occurred when the gold volume fraction was 0.015. Subsequent MD simulations confirmed a dense water layer formed 2nm away from the gold nanoparticle boundary. It is speculated that the observed increase in thermal conductivity was principly caused by this dense water layer formed around each nanoparticle., Comment: Transactions of the Institution of Engineers Sri Lanka, Vol 1- Part B

Formulation of stable nanofluids containing ZnO, Al2O3 and TiO2 nanoparticles in propylene glycol (PG), ethylene glycol (EG) and 50wt% mixtures of PG and EG in water (WPG, WEG) were investigated, with and without the presence of surfactants. Nanofluid samples of particle concentrations 1-9wt% were prepared by dispersive method. Surfactant presence was in the range of 0-1wt%/wt% of nanoparticles. Visual observation, particle size measurement and zeta potential analysis were performed to evaluate the dispersion stability. In overall the PG-based samples were found to be the most stable suspensions. The effect of base fluid on particle size and the effect of day light on nanofluid stability were also examined as a function of time. TiO2-PG samples showed a colour change when exposed to sunlight. Sunlight also caused the PG based TiO2 and Al2O3 nanofluid to increase their particle sizes by up to 45% in the course of 3 days. As for stability, the sedimentation velocity was observed to be a key parameter. Finally by comparison of settling theory with experiments, a stability boundary was demarcated to identify stable and unstable nanofluids. Keywords: Nanoparticles, Nanofluids, Glycols, Formulation, Stability, Particle size, Comment: 17 pages, 7 tables, 8 figures. Submitted to Powder Technology

Numerical investigations are conducted to study the effect of factors such as particle clustering and interfacial layer thickness on thermal conductivity of nanofluids. Based on this, parameters including Kapitza radius, and fractal and chemical dimension which have received little attention by previous research are rigorously investigated. The degree of thermal enhancement is analysed for increasing aggregate size, particle concentration, interfacial thermal resistance, and fractal and chemical dimensions. This analysis is conducted for water-based nanofluids of Alumina (Al2O3), CuO and Titania (TiO2) nanoparticles where the particle concentrations are varied up to 4vol%. Results from the numerical work are validated using available experimental data. For the case of aggregate size, particle concentration and interfacial thermal resistance; the aspect ratio (ratio of radius of gyration of aggregate to radius of primary particle, Rg/a) is varied between 2 to 60. It was found that the enhancement decreases with interfacial layer thickness. Also the rate of decrease is more significant after a given aggregate size. For a given interfacial resistance, the enhancement is mostly sensitive to Rg/a <20 indicated by the steep gradients of data plots. Predicted and experimental data for thermal conductivity enhancement are in good agreement.

The dispersion stability and thermal conductivity of propylene glycol based nanofluids containing Al2O3 and TiO2 nanoparticles were studied in the temperature range of 20 to 80 {\deg}C. Nanofluids with different concentrations of nanoparticles were formulated by the two-step method without use of dispersants. In contrast to the common belief the average particle size of nanofluids was observed to decrease with increasing temperature. The nanofluids showed excellent stability over the temperature range of interest. Thermal conductivity enhancement for both of studied nanofluids was a non-linear function of concentration while was temperature independent. Theoretical analyses were performed using existing models and comparisons were made with experimental results. The model based on the aggregation theory appears to yield the best fit. Keywords: Nanofluids, Propylene glycol, Alumina nanoparticles, Titania nanoparticles, Thermal conductivity, Dispersion stability.

Nanoparticle suspensions (also called nanofluids) are often polydisperse and tend to settle with time. Settling kinetics in these systems are known to be complex and hence challenging to understand. In this work, polydisperse spherical alumina (Al2O3) nanoparticles in the size range of ~10-100nm were dispersed in water and examined for aggregation and settling behaviour near its isoelectric point (IEP). A series of settling experiments were conducted and the results were analysed by photography and by Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS). The settling curve obtained from standard bed height measurement experiments indicated two different types of behaviour, both of which were also seen in the SAXS data. But the SAXS data were remarkably able to pick out the rapid settling regime as a result of the high temporal resolution (10s) used. By monitoring the SAXS intensity, it was further possible to record the particle aggregation process for the first time. Optical microscopy images were produced on drying and dried droplets extracted from the suspension at various times. Dried deposits showed the rapid decrease in the number of very large particles with time which qualitatively validates the SAXS prediction, and therefore its suitability as a tool to study unstable polydisperse colloids. Keywords: Nanoparticles, nanofluids, polydisperse, aggregation, settling, alumina, microscopy, SAXS