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Policies directed at improving the educational system are often based upon a rationalistic view of the processes of teaching and schooling. The courts and other branches of government are devoting more attention to regulating schooling. As the rights of students have been articulated through litigation and legislation, the duties of schools have become crystallized. The current legalistic conception of schooling contains no reference for assessing the nature and content of educational practice or how it affects the child. This rationalistic view is often at variance with the spontaneous and humanistic theories held by many teachers. While teachers must adjust to the rational theory held by the controlling forces of schools, they are inclined to adhere to their own views in actual classroom practice. Within this conceptual framework, a future study will be conducted to examine teachers' perceptions of their work, of education generally, and of the rationalistic model currently enforced by government and bureaucracies. (JD)

This document, a companion report to a detailed investigation into school districts' teacher selection processes, presents detailed case studies conducted in six different school districts: (1) Mesa Unified School District (Arizona); (2) Montgomery County Public Schools (Maryland); (3) East Williston Union Free School District (New York); (4) Hillsborough County Public Schools (Florida); (5) City School District of Rochester (New York); and (6) Durham County School System (North Carolina). Each case study contains information regarding the geographical area, demographic characteristics, and general make-up or organization of the school district, the policy context, the teacher selection process, and factors that influence the shaping and implementation of policies and practices within the district. (CB)

The papers in this collection report on various aspects of a project which studied the effects of educational policies upon classroom teaching. The background of the project is a set of intensive interviews of 43 randomly-selected teachers in 3 diverse school districts. In "Teaching Standards or Standardized Teaching," the point is made that school systems serious about teacher quality must shun "remote control" accountability measures and treat teachers as professionals. "Beyond Standardization: State Standards and School Improvement" discusses state educational policies mandating standardized testing for students. "The Seduction of Central Office Administrators by Effective Schools Research" raises the question of the reliability of such research and how well state policymakers understand research results. "School Reform by Test Scores: A Logical Extension of American Educational Folly" critically examines the policy of basing teacher evaluation on the results of pupil performance on standardized tests. "Teacher Professionalism: A Radical Approach to Improving Schools" offers suggestions for lessening the bureaucratization of the schools and improving teacher education. "On Standards and Public Policy" argues that public officials are using the wrong approach in their efforts to improve education. (JD)

This document presents the four case studies that constituted the major sources for "Teacher Evaluation: A Study of Effective Practices" by the same authors. The study was undertaken to find teacher evaluation processes that produce information useful to school districts in helping teachers improve or in making personnel decisions. The four school districts selected for case studies represent diverse teacher evaluation processes and organizational environments: Salt Lake City, Utah; Lake Washington, Washington; Greenwich, Connecticut; and Toledo, Ohio. Indepth findings from each case study are discussed, including reasons for selection of that particular district and such topics as policy context, organizational setting, and the teacher evaluation system on paper and in practice. In the first study (Salt Lake City), pertinent information is also provided about the cultural context (the Mormons) and its relationship to the system of shared governance in the district. Despite differences in form, the four districts follow certain common practices in teacher evaluation: (1) providing top-level leadership and institutional resources for the evaluation process; (2) ensuring that evaluators have the necessary expertise; (3) faciltating collaboration between administrators and teachers; and (4) making evaluation and support systems compatible with each other and with the district's overall goals. (TE)

This paper focuses on ways in which one state policy for improving education--standard-setting through testing mechanisms--affects the classroom teacher-learner relationship. That uniform policy-making is problematic is clear from observations of 43 Mid-Atlantic school district teachers. Responding to three types of standards, 45 percent found minimum competency testing objectionable because a single measure cannot allow for student, resource, and goal differences. Likewise, standardized testing for decision-making about students was typically viewed as curriculum narrowing. The strongest reaction stemmed from competency-based approaches to teaching and learning that require test-passing for each discrete skill before moving on. Teachers generally found it difficult to adapt standard policies to the disparate needs of students, though many recognized the usefulness of a common educational direction. The need for dual accountability--to students and administration--is a problem that could be partially rectified through ensuring competency among teachers. Nonetheless, teachers familiar with the competency-based teacher certification idea recently advanced by policy-makers again tended to oppose it: like teaching itself, learning to teach is a complex activity requiring behaviors varying from student to student, an attitude research confirms. Paper and pencil competency tests were also viewed skeptically; 60 percent of teachers opposed tests for recertification. In sum, policymakers must realize the collective impact of such policies since they may make teaching less attractive and thus work against themselves. (KS)

A preliminary survey of 32 school districts identified as having highly developed teacher evaluation systems was followed by the selection of 4 case study districts (Salt Lake City, Utah; Lake Washington, Washington; Greenwich, Connecticut; and Toledo, Ohio) representing diverse teacher evaluation processes and organizational environments. Common factors found to underlie the success of the evaluation systems in each case study district were: demonstration of organizational commitment to teacher evaluation, procedures for ensuring evaluator competence, collaboration with the teachers' organization and individual teachers, and compatibility of teacher evaluation with other district management strategies. The conclusions reached, to be modified on the basis of local experiences, are that a successful teacher evaluation system should: (1) suit the educational goals, management style, conception of teaching, and community values of the school district; (2) have top-level commitment to, and resources for, evaluation; (3) match the purpose of the district; (4) have efficient use of resources to achieve reliability, validity, and cost-effectiveness; and (5) have teacher involvement and responsibility. (MLF)

Focusing on the experiences of five southern states using teacher testing policies, this survey provides evidence of shared experiences and lessons learned despite the existence of five different sets of certification requirements. The first section of the report concentrates on the national context for the movement toward teacher testing. Conflicting trends in education involving projected teacher shortages and concerns for improved teacher quality and professionalism are identified as some reasons for the current popularity of teacher testing. The second section of the report focuses on the five states: Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It highlights why these states decided to change certification requirements, as well as how they implemented new testing programs with what consequences. Specific attention is paid to the impact the different kinds of tests have had on schools of education, the teacher supply, and the local school districts. Repercussions these changes have had on the overall state education system, especially in indicating power shifts in policymaking, are identified. These findings are discussed in terms of their implication for the wider issue of the development of the teaching profession. (Author/JD)

This report presents a new comprehensive design for licensing teachers. The design would require beginning teachers to complete a supervised internship as the penultimate step in the licensing process. Local school districts, operating under state guidelines, would be expected to make carefully planned internships available to all beginning teachers. Upon successful completion of the internship, the beginning teacher would be eligible to take the state-administered test of teaching skills. This test would assess the candidate's ability to analyze and respond to teaching situations. The design, adapted from study of licensing in other professions, represents a substantial departure from traditional and recent approaches to teacher licensing. It represents an effort to provide the public with a high level of assurance that novice teachers are fit to practice. (Author/JD)

Case studies were conducted in six school districts nationwide to examine teacher selection in terms of policy and organizational context, organizational characteristics, selection processes, and effects. Interviews were conducted in each district with directors of personnel, superintendents, staff involved in the selection process, directors of curriculum and instruction, directors of research, and local teachers' organization officials. At representative schools, principals, recently hired teachers, and more senior teachers were interviewed and other relevant data gathered. This report details the findings for each of the districts studied and assesses aspects of each school district's procedures. Conclusions and recommendations to improve teacher selection, recruitment, screening, hiring, placement, induction, and evaluation processes are presented. These involve the enhancement of the efficacy of state and local policies for recruitment efforts; tighter bonds between recruitment and hiring decisions; recognition and balancing of the varying operational definitions of a "good teacher"; recognition of the effects of the hiring process on teachers; need to place teachers carefully in the appropriate setting and school; need for comprehensive induction plans for new teachers; and development of a special evaluation program specifically for beginning teachers. (CB)

The Training Program for Urban School Research and Evaluation Personnel was a highly selective program for preparing partially-trained students for research work in urban education. The University of Chicago held a proposal competition for students in the Department of Education and related departments. From among those submitting research proposals, seven were selected for participation in the program. The program brought together these seven students with those of our faculty most intimately involved with research on urban education. Each student conducted an independent empirical investigation into an important urban education question. The seminars used the resources of the University of Chicago and the City of Chicago to search out and bring to bear expertise on the issue under discussion. All students had a supervised practicum experience where they shared experiences and insights with faculty members and other students in the group. Three products came out of the program. The seven individual research reports represent the research outcomes and contributions to knowledge of the program. The organization of the program as described above represents the model development outcome. The trained urban school researchers are the "people" output of the experiment. (Author/JM)

The idea of teacher growth and development as a continuum spanning a teaching career guides the National Council for Accreditation for Teacher Education's emerging standards. The 1995 NCATE standards revision emphasizes performance and performance-based assessments, professional collaboration and community, technology, and diversity of curriculum, student body, and faculty. (MLH)

A survey of 1,000 adults nationwide revealed that 75% believe teachers are only partially trained or not adequately trained. A national certification program for experienced teachers in at least 30 specialties is being developed, and tougher accreditation standards are being applied to teacher preparation programs. (MLF)

To avoid treating or paying teachers as professionals, our society and its educational system have willingly accepted mediocrity. Moving toward a new vision of teaching, this article proposes the integration of three policy mechanisms (accreditation, licensing, and advanced certification) producing three types of teachers: instructors (college graduates), professional teachers, and board-certified teachers. (11 references) (MLH)