Search

The directed energy deposition arc (DED-Arc) has been extensively used to develop metallic parts with varying complexities. A major challenge for austenitic stainless steels is managing heat accumulation due to their low thermal conductivity. This study aimed to characterize the microstructure and mechanical properties of AISI 316L preforms manufactured by additive manufacturing (AM) under different deposition paths and cooling conditions. Samples underwent macro- and microstructural analyses, and tensile and hardness tests to evaluate their mechanical behavior. Additionally, the effect of active cooling using near immersion active cooling (NIAC) in water on the microstructure was assessed by examining the secondary interdendritic spacing and ferritic phase fraction. The NIAC technique has shown potential for enhancing productivity by producing preforms with more uniform thickness and consistent solidification/cooling conditions throughout the multiple layers. This approach eliminated deposition idle time, leading to a productivity increase of up to 108%. Microstructures obtained with active cooling were more refined than those resulting from natural cooling, evidenced by a reduction in secondary interdendritic spacing and an increased fraction of delta ferrite. These microstructural changes resulted in higher hardness and mechanical strength in the material processed with the NIAC technique. However, difficulties in precisely controlling the water level resulted in increased apparent porosity when using the NIAC technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wire arc additive manufacturing enables the production of components with high deposition rates and the incorporation of multiple materials. However, the manufactured components possess a wavy surface, which is a major difficulty when it comes to simulating the mechanical behavior of wire arc additively manufactured components and evaluation of experimental full-field measurements. In this work, the wavy surface of a thick-walled tube is measured with a portable 3D scanning technique first. Then, the surface contour is considered numerically using the finite cell method. There, hierarchic shape functions based on integrated Legendre polynomials are combined with a fictitious domain approach to simplify the discretization process. This enables a hierarchic p-refinement process to study the convergence of the reaction quantities and the surface strains under tension–torsion load. Throughout all considerations, uncertainties arising from multiple sources are assessed. This includes the material parameter identification, the geometry measurement, and the experimental analysis. When comparing experiment and numerical simulation, the in-plane surface strains are computed based on displacement data using radial basis functions as ansatz for global surface interpolation. It turns out that the finite cell method is a suitable numerical technique to consider the wavy surface encountered for additively manufactured components. The numerical results of the mechanical response of thick-walled tubes subjected to tension–torsion load demonstrate good agreement with real experimental data, particularly when employing higher-order polynomials. This agreement persists even under the consideration of the inherent uncertainties stemming from multiple sources, which are determined by Gaussian error propagation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To ensure sufficient repair of a metal structure damaged from, e.g., corrosion or wear by wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), appropriate toolpath planning and prediction of material deposition for the welding process are required. In the current work, a planner employing combined contour and raster pattern paths based on a sliced surface scan of the damage was developed. To extend existing empirical models for material deposition during welding to the two-dimensional paths used in WAAM, a paraboloid deposition function was used. Realistic deposition rates for uneven substrates were ensured by continuously adjusting the vertex height of the paraboloid in closely timed deposition events along the path. The deposition prediction can be used to assess if additional layers of repair welding are needed to fill a damage. For a repair with a build height of around 13 mm, the damage was sufficiently filled after following the generated toolpath plan, and a minimal amount of voids were observed. Errors in the material deposition prediction were within ± 1 mm in most of the repair. Errors in the predicted deposition were higher in the start/stop regions of weld beads, presumably because the ignition procedure in the welding machine was not accounted for. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have demonstrated a promising material efficiency potential in comparison to traditional material removal processes. A new directed energy deposition (DED) category AM process called wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is evolving due to its benefits which include faster build rates, capacity to build large volumes, and inexpensive feedstock materials and machine tools compared to more technologically mature powder-based AM technologies. However, WAAM products present challenges like poor surface finish and lower dimensional accuracy compared to powder-based processes or machined parts, prevalence of thermal distortions, residual stresses, and defects like porosity, cracks, and humping, often requiring post-processing operations like finish machining and heat treatment. These post-processing operations add to the production cost and environmental footprint of WAAM-built parts. Therefore, considering the opportunities and challenges presented by WAAM, this paper analyses the environmental impact, production costs, and mechanical properties of WAAM parts and compares them with those achieved by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and traditional computer numerical control (CNC) milling. A high-strength low-alloy steel (ER70S) mechanical part with medium complexity was fabricated using WAAM. Based on the data collected during this experiment, environmental impact and cost models were built using life cycle assessment and life cycle costing methodologies. WAAM was observed to be the most environmentally friendly option due to its superior material efficacy than CNC milling and has a better energy efficiency than LPBF. Also, WAAM was the most cost-friendly option when adopted in batch production for batch sizes above 3. The environmental and cost potential of WAAM is amplified when used for manufacturing large products, resulting in significant material, emission, and cost savings. The fabricated WAAM part demonstrated good mechanical properties comparable to that of cast/forged material. The methodology and experimental data presented in this study can be used to calculate environmental impacts and costs for other products and can be helpful to manufacturers in selecting the most ecofriendly and cost-efficient manufacturing process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deposition of cladding titanium (Ti) alloy layers on aluminum (Al) alloy components via wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has many attractive properties but is also significantly challenging because the deposition of a molten Ti alloy in a high-temperature state causes Ti and Al alloys to melt and mix. This leads to serious problems such as the formation of brittle intermetallic compounds (IMCs), lower forming dimensional accuracy (the formation of beads with side overhang and hump defects), and the generation of cracks and voids in the dissimilar metal interface. This study aimed to comprehensively investigate these challenges, in particular, the effect of WAAM path strategies on the forming dimensional accuracy. A pure Ti bead equivalent to ERTi-2 was deposited on an Al alloy plate equivalent to 5052 using stringer and weaving strategies. As a result, cladding ERTi-2 multi-beads on a 5052 plate without fusion defects were successfully fabricated using weaving strategies. In addition, the formation mechanisms for hump defects and severe spatter were clarified by observing the behavior of the molten pool. We also examined the formation of brittle IMCs and low mechanical properties. Tensile tests results showed an ultimate tensile strength of 54 ± 18 MPa (average ± standard deviation) at the dissimilar metal interface. According to fractographic analysis, the irregular formation of microcracks at the thicker IMC layer reduces bonding strength. The formation of the IMC layer is a result of the concentrated heat input in the directed energy deposition (DED) process, and is not due to the weaving strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arc weaving is a feasible technique for making thick-walled components in the arc-based directed energy deposition process (DED-Arc). In the current study, four different arc weaving strategies, namely, triangle, square, semi-circle, and helix, are used to fabricate the walls. For this, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) based DED-Arc set-up using aluminium alloy wire (ER4043) as a filler material is used for different printing strategies. The fabricated walls were investigated for their surface characteristics, microstructure, mechanical properties and residual stress. The weld-bead and wall geometry study revealed that for the same number of layers, the semi-circular arc-weaving strategy had the maximum height among all, with an effective area of 65.77 %. The waviness of the side surface of the walls was maximum for the semi-circle (714 ± 35 µm), indicating the semi-circle will require almost twice the amount of machining than the helix, square, and triangle in postprocessing operation. The optical micrographs showed that the semi-circular weaving pattern exhibited a coarser gain with thicker grain boundaries with an average grain size of 46.4 ± 23.7 µm as compared to other weaving patterns. The triangle weaving pattern demonstrated the smallest grain size among all, resulting in high hardness and superior wear resistance. The residual stress (RS) results revealed that the RS is in tension (22–24 MPa) in the bottom layers for all the walls and becomes almost zero (−1.5 to −2.5 MPa) in the top layers except for the walls formed by helix strategy. The square weaving strategy strikes a balance between surface characteristics, microstructure, and mechanical properties, making it a highly viable option for thick wall fabrication. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), based on gas metal arc welding, is ideal for fabricating components with sizeable geometries and moderate structural intricacies. However, the electric arc introduces a heat source and directional heat dissipation during deposition, resulting in undesired microstructural characteristics, such as columnar dendritic structures, which lead to variations in hardness across the printed component. Our previous research introduced the friction stir burnishing (FSB) tool integrated with WAAM using a hybrid approach called simultaneous processing. This method suppressed dendrite formation and enhanced the microstructure within WAAM. This approach directly correlates process dynamics, force dynamics, and temperature control, facilitating efficient plastic deformation. This research investigates the relationship between process parameters and microhardness within the combined manufacturing systems of WAAM and FSB tools. The study primarily focuses on using SUS 316L austenitic stainless steel wire material for WAAM and examines how simultaneous operation with the FSB tool impacts microstructure and microhardness. The investigation emphasizes three key parameters: the distance between the welding torch and the FSB tool, tool rotational speed, and machine feed speed. Comprehensive experimentation, including Taguchi analysis, determines optimal values for these parameters. Results indicate that torch-to-tool distance and machine feed speed significantly influence microhardness, while tool rotational speed shows minimal impact. The most effective combination for enhancing microhardness was a torch-to-tool distance of 20 mm, a machine feed speed of 528 mm/min, and a tool rotational speed of 1900 rpm. This combination induced a plastic deformation transformation effect, contributing to the overall improvement in microhardness. Additionally, the optimal parameters for achieving a smaller grain size were a torch-to-tool distance of 17 mm, a machine feed speed of 356 mm/min, and a tool rotational speed of 1900 rpm, as indicated by the average grain size. Furthermore, this study shows significant improvements in microstructure and hardness within 50–200 µm depth from the surface. Comparative analysis between FSB tool-processed and non-processed samples indicates a 22.51% increase in microhardness, with the grain size of the simultaneous process being 7 µm compared to 11.55 µm. Optimizing the process parameters of simultaneous processing achieves superior microhardness and microstructural refinement. Additionally, it highlights the need for further material development to address challenges associated with tool durability, paving the way for advancements in simultaneous processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the dependent relationship between microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion performance on the wire arc additive manufactured (WAAM) ER2209 duplex stainless steel (DSS). DSS is renowned for its corrosion resistance and mechanical strength, making it favorable for various applications. This study uses the gas metal arc welding (GMAW)‐ based WAAM technique to fabricate the wall structure using ER2209 DSS filler wire. Fine, equiaxed dendrites are formed along the build direction, with the austenite phase exceeding 70% due to the repeated heating and slow cooling inherent to WAAM process. X‐ray diffraction (XRD) confirms no brittle intermetallic phases. The results shows that varying austenite‐ferrite fractions significantly influences the anisotropy in mechanical properties between build and deposit directions. Along the build direction, the varying phase fraction causes difference in hardness of 19.59 HV0.3 and tensile strength of 20 MPa. The maximum tensile strength (787.08 MPa) is observed in the deposit direction, with a 52 MPa difference between the build and deposit directions. Tafel and EIS measurements indicated that WAAM samples corrosion resistance was almost close to wrought 2205 DSS. This study highlights WAAM's potential for defect‐free DSS parts and suggests post‐heat treatment to optimize microstructure and mechanical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current global 3D metal printing research is focused on powder bed fusion and direct energy deposition. Several materials are presently under research to assess their post-additive manufacturing properties, and to process them in industries using advanced manufacturing techniques. This study investigates the electrochemical, mechanical, and metallurgical properties of wire arc additively manufactured (WAAM) ER70S-6 alloy walls on AISI S235 plates, emphasizing ship component fabrication. The corrosion resistance of both materials is assessed through Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and Potentiodynamic Polarization testing in a 3.5% NaCl solution. Surface and cross-sectional morphologies are analyzed using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, while energy dispersive spectroscopy is employed to study the chemical composition of the corrosion products. Moreover, the hardness of the WAAM-deposited ER70S6 wall is found to be highest in the uppermost layers of deposition due to the presence of acicular ferrite and ferritic-bainite microstructure. Tensile and Charpy impact strength for AISI S235 and WAAM-deposited ER70S-6 exhibit similar performance at room and low temperatures. Interestingly, the WAAM sample demonstrates a 60% higher elongation than the AISI S235 sample. Hence, the findings from this experimental work suggest that WAAM-deposited carbon steel exhibits favourable corrosion resistance and comparable mechanical properties to AISI S235. Consequently, WAAM is emerging as a promising alternative to conventional manufacturing techniques for fabricating ship components, repairing and modifying hull structures, manufacturing nozzles, propeller blades, fin-like structures, structural components, and more. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fabrication of Mg alloys using the additive manufacturing process is quite challenging owing to high oxidation and volatile nature at high temperatures. The present study investigates the effect of wire feed speed (WFS) and travel speed (TS) on single tracks of AZ31 Mg alloy fabricated using the cold metal transfer wire arc additive Manufacturing (CMT-WAAM) process. The WFS and TS of CMT-WAAM are optimized to achieve better deposition quality. An increase in WFS increased the width, height, penetration depth, and heat-affected zone of single tracks. In addition, increasing TS decreased the deposited tracks' contact angle and height. The average grain size at the interface zone, center and top portion of single tracks are 35, 42, and 60 μm. The x-ray diffraction results show only the presence of primary phase α-Mg; interestingly, the β-Mg17Al12 and η-Al8Mn5 secondary phases are identified by SEM + EDS and TEM images. The microhardness increased from the substrate to the top section of single tracks due to the increased volume fraction of secondary-phase particles. Based on the best-chosen process parameters obtained from single-track deposition, a multilayer AZ31 Mg thin wall is deposited. The UTS, YS, and % EL of the deposited thin wall in travel direction (TD) are 222 MPa, 102 MPa, and 18%, while in build direction are 202 MPa, 110 MPa, and 14%, respectively. The tensile strength and elongation % of TD and BD samples exhibited comparable properties and were higher than cast AZ31 Mg alloy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnesium alloys, renowned for their lightweight yet high-strength characteristics, with exceptional mechanical properties, are highly coveted for numerous applications. The emergence of magnesium alloy additive manufacturing (Mg AM) has further propelled their popularity, offering advantages such as unparalleled precision, swift production rates, enhanced design freedom, and optimized material utilization. This technology holds immense potential in fabricating intricate geometries, complex internal structures, and performance-tailored microstructures, enabling groundbreaking applications. In this paper, we delve into the core processes and pivotal influencing factors of the current techniques employed in Mg AM, including selective laser melting (SLM), electron beam melting (EBM), wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), binder jetting (BJ), friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM), and indirect additive manufacturing (I-AM). Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) excels in precision but is limited by a low deposition rate and chamber size; WAAM offers cost-effectiveness, high efficiency, and scalability for large components; BJ enables precise material deposition for customized parts with environmental benefits; FSAM achieves fine grain sizes, low defect rates, and potential for precision products; and I-AM boasts a high build rate and industrial adaptability but is less studied recently. This paper attempts to explore the possibilities and challenges for future research in AM. Among them, two issues are how to mix different AM applications and how to use the integration of Internet technologies, machine learning, and process modeling with AM, which are innovative breakthroughs in AM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to its unique benefits over standard conventional "subtractive" manufacturing, additive manufacturing is attracting growing interest in academic and industrial sectors. Here, special emphasis is given to wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), a directed energy deposition process that employs arc welding tools and wire to build metallic components by deposition of weld material. The WAAM process has several advantages, e.g., low cost, rapid deposition rate, and suitability for large complex metallic components. However, many WAAM challenges such as large welding deformation, undesirable porosity, and components with high residual stress remain to be overcome. Multidisciplinary cross-fusion research involving manufacturing, material science, automation control, and artificial intelligence/machine learning (ML) are deployed to overcome the above-mentioned problems. ML enables improved product quality control, process optimization, and modeling of complex multiphysics systems in the WAAM process. This research utilizes a data-driven literature review process, a defined and deliberate approach to localizing, evaluating, and analyzing published studies in the literature. The most relevant studies in the literature are analyzed using keyword co-occurrence and cluster analysis. Numerous aspects of WAAM, including design for WAAM, material analytics/characterization, defect detection/monitoring, as well as process modeling and optimization, have been examined to identify state-of-the-art research in ML for WAAM. Finally, the challenges and opportunities for using ML in the WAAM process are identified and summarized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper delves into the formability of material deposited by wire arc additive manufacturing. It presents a novel dieless Nakajima testing procedure that offers a practical solution for obtaining strain loading paths up to failure directly from the deposited material without the need for extracting sheet blanks. The procedure involved machining a region of the deposited material to the desired shape and thickness and using a press to drive and control the movement of a hemispherical punch. The test was designed using finite element modeling, and its effectiveness in obtaining the required strain loading paths directly from the deposited material was verified through experimentation with digital image correlation. Importantly, this novel test eliminates the need for the special-purpose tool setup required in conventional Nakajima sheet formability tests, thereby simplifying the overall testing process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identification of suitable processing conditions is essential for successful fabrication of engineering components of any material by wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Objectives of this article are to determine optimal process parameters for deposition of super duplex stainless steel (SDSS) ER2594 in gas metal arc welding (GMAW)-based WAAM using response surface methodology (RSM) and characterisation of the deposited materials. The developed RSM-based models of deposition geometry in terms of bead width and bead height, and deposition rate based on experimental data showed higher values of width, height and deposition rate for increasing voltage and wire feed speed due to higher heat input onto the tip of wire and decreasing torch travel speed and gas flow rate. Results of tensile tests of the deposited SDSS exhibited increase of mechanical properties like yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and elongation by 28.8%, 14.3% and 84%, respectively, compared to that of the cast SDSS material. Microstructural characterisations of the deposited SDSS wall using SEM exhibited a typically higher ratio of austenite to ferrite phases (77:23) with oriented columnar dendritic structure compared to that of the base material (50:50). Pre-heating of the substrate could enhance the deposited bead size with higher width due to higher energy available for melting and spreading of the beads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) and laser-based powder bed fusion (L-PBF) are additive manufacturing (AM) processes that allow the manufacturing of complex part geometries. The manufacturing of AM parts does not result in high-quality functional surfaces; therefore, postprocessing such as milling is usually required. For L-PBF parts, the support structures and, for WAAM parts, the undulating surface are usually removed after AM processes. These two application-related cases are investigated in this work, with the conclusion that support structure milling and the milling of the surface of WAAM parts lead to the dimensionally increased wear of milling tools in comparison to milling of solid material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of different metal deposition modes—spray (S), pulse (P), and pulse-switchback (PS)—on the metallurgical and mechanical properties of SS308L structures in wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Three thin-walled structures were deposited using optimal process variables and inter-layer time delay. Through metallographic examination, it was found that the P-mode had the highest homogeneity (88.94%) in terms of grain size and phase fraction, followed by the S-mode (86.03%) and the PS-mode (74.68%). Based on micro-hardness data, the P-mode had the highest average hardness value (272.51 HV along BD and 276.99 HV along TD). However, the PS-mode (83.46%) had a more homogeneous hardness distribution compared to the S-mode (83.11%) and P-mode (78.59%). In tensile tests, the P-mode showed higher tensile strength (823 MPa) and more homogeneous (98.68%) properties than the PS-mode and S-mode. However, the P-mode exhibited the highest variability (21.14%) in terms of elongation, followed by PS-mode (20.82%) and S-mode (16.30%). It was also found that the P-mode induced the maximum stress-induced phase transformation from γ-phase to α'-phase, followed by PS-mode and S-mode. This study provides valuable insights for determining the optimal deposition mode for SS308L structural components in the WAAM process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has grown in popularity due to the many practical uses of additive manufacturing (AM), most notably in the fabrication of large metal structures. Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) is an advanced gas metal arc welding (GMAW) technology with minimal heat input, producing clean surfaces and little spatter. This article introduces WAAM, the CMT procedure, and the CMT mechanism. It examines the mechanical properties and microstructure of this process's metals and alloys. According to the study, WAAM-fabricated titanium, nickel, steel, and aluminium-based alloys have mechanical qualities comparable to cast or wrought material. This article describes common difficulties encountered in the WAAM, including high residual stresses, porosity, delamination, and fracture. Finally, the paper briefly discusses defect-reduction strategies and WAAM advancements. This article proposes using WAAM technology to meet industrial needs and claims that it can be a good alternative for high-quality production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several advantages of directed energy deposition-arc (DED-arc) have garnered considerable research attention including high deposition rates and low costs. However, defects such as discontinuity and pores may occur during the manufacturing process. Defect identification is the key to monitoring and quality assessments of the additive manufacturing process. This study proposes a novel acoustic signal-based defect identification method for DED-arc via wavelet time–frequency diagrams. With the continuous wavelet transform, one-dimensional (1D) acoustic signals acquired in situ during manufacturing are converted into two-dimensional (2D) time–frequency diagrams to train, validate, and test the convolutional neural network (CNN) models. In this study, several CNN models were examined and compared, including AlexNet, ResNet-18, VGG-16, and MobileNetV3. The accuracy of the models was 96.35%, 97.92%, 97.01%, and 98.31%, respectively. The findings demonstrate that the energy distribution of normal and abnormal acoustic signals has significant differences in both the time and frequency domains. The proposed method is verified to identify defects effectively in the manufacturing process and advance the identification time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is one of the most researched and fastest-growing AM technique because of its capability to produce larger components with medium complexity. In recent times, the use of WAAM process has been increased because of its ability to produce complex components economically when compared with other AM techniques. The purpose of this study is to investigate the capabilities of wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), which has emerged as a recognized method for fabricating larger components with complex geometries. Design/methodology/approach: This paper provides a review of process parameters for optimizing and analyzing mechanical properties, hardness, microstructure and corrosion behavior achieved through various WAAM-based techniques. Findings: Limited analysis exists regarding the mechanical properties of various orientations of Inconel 625 alloy. Moreover, there is a lack of studies concerning the corrosion behavior of Inconel 625 alloy fabricated using WAAM. Originality/value: The review identifies that the formation of intermetallic phases reduces the desirability of mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of WAAM-fabricated Inconel 625 alloy. Additionally, the study reported notable results obtained by various research studies and the improvements to be achieved in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the numerical analysis of effective stress and distortion (dimensional variations) in bulk deposited structures of Inconel 625 alloy with seven different deposition strategies using wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process. Due to the challenges in detecting in-situ stress changes during bulk deposition, numerical analysis is employed to approximate stress distribution. The goal is to investigate stress and distortion (dimensional variations) in the build direction (BD), longitudinal and transverse directions, and understand their impact on anisotropy and asymmetry. The findings reveal distinct patterns in effective stress, with initial decrease in bottom, followed by a gradual increase at the middle and rapid increase thereafter, regardless of deposition strategies. Parallel and contour deposition strategies exhibit lower effective stress compared to spiral strategies. Distortion (dimensional variations) along the BD increases with height, and parallel strategies result in higher distortion. The parallel strategies show increasing distortion from one edge to the other, while spiral and contour strategies lead to high distortion at the center. The parallel and contour deposition strategies exhibit higher compressive stress at the bottom and middle compared to the spiral strategies. Anisotropy analysis indicates higher stress anisotropy in parallel and contour patterns, but lower distortion anisotropy compared to spiral patterns. Empirical equations are developed to understand the relationship between stress, distortion (dimensional variations) and hardness. The study suggests that higher effective stress can adversely affect material yielding behavior. This study undertakes a comparison between FEA and analytical model which reveals a close alignment in the residual stress distributions in the build direction. [Display omitted] ● Residual stress and distortion behaviour of seven deposition strategies are numerically analyzed. ● Residual stress in bulk deposition decreases at bottom, increases in middle and top. ● Parallel strategies result in lower horizontal stress and distortion compared to spiral and contour. ● The compressive stress in the parallel and contour strategies is significantly higher than that the spiral. ● Parallel and contour strategies exhibit greater stress anisotropy but lower distortion anisotropy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), variable layer heights enable the non-parallel or non-planar slicing of parts. In researching variable layer heights, this paper documents printing strategies for a reference geometry whose key features are non-orthogonal growth and unsupported overhangs. The complexity of 3D printing with welding requires parameter optimization to control the deposition of molten material. Thus, 3D printing with welding requires the precise deposition of molten material. Currently, there is no standard solution for the customization of process parameters and intelligent collection of data from sensors. To address this gap in technology, this research develops an Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled, distributed communication protocol to control process parameters, synchronize commands, and integrate device data. To intelligently collect sensor information, this research creates a query-able database during pre-planning and production. This contributes to fundamental research in WAAM by documenting strategies for printing variable layer heights, the customization of control parameters, and the collection of data through a WAAM Information Model (WIM). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Materials Engineering / Cailiao Gongcheng is the property of Journal of Materials Engineering Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of Materials Engineering / Cailiao Gongcheng is the property of Journal of Materials Engineering Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Metal Working (1674-165X) is the property of Metal Working Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

High-strength aluminum alloy have become one of the most commonly used metal materials for aerospace and automotive application parts due to its high strength， low density， excellent ductility and corrosion resistance. Wire arc additive manufacturing （WAAM） has the ability to rapidly in-situ form and manufacture complex structural parts， and is very suitable for the manufacturing of medium or large high-strength aluminium alloy parts. The current status of high-strength aluminum alloy WAAM processes and equipment， the inherent properties and defects of high-strength aluminum alloy WAAM， and the main performance optimization methods were comprehensively analyzed in this paper. The inherent characteristics of the microstructure and properties as well as the impact of hybrid additive manufacturing technologies on the microstructure and properties were discussed. Opinions are put forward on issues such as metallurgical defects， characteristic performance requirements， the advantages and disadvantages of various optimization processes in WAAM. Development directions such as a comprehensive evaluation system， composition design and wire development， special heat treatment systems and synergy of composite additive manufacturing technology are proposed. Such proposals are expected to provide references for the performance improvement and application promotion of high-strength aluminum alloys manufactured via WAAM.

Wire-arc additive manufacturing is a new type of manufacture using wire as filling material and arc as a heat source， making it easier to manufacture complex-shaped and big-sized parts. The reciprocating and unidirectional process path experiment was conducted. The inclined wall made by unidirectional path has better morphology， less splash， and a smoother surface. The simulation model of AM11 reciprocating and unidirectional manufacturing path was established in finite element software and solved. The simulation results show that the unidirectional path deposition temperature is 267.4 ℃， the deposition thermal stress is 357.4 MPa， the reciprocating path deposition temperature is 307.0 ℃， and the deposition thermal stress is 420.4 MPa， the heat accumulation and thermal stress of unidirectional path are lower than that of reciprocating path. AM11， AM12， and AM21 inclined wall samples with different slope factors by wire-arc additive manufacturing in unidirectional path were prepared， and their microstructure and properties were analyzed. The results indicate that the grain size of AM11， AM12， and AM21 is 35， 39 μm， and 42 μm， there is more precipitated β-Mg17Al12 in AM21 thin-walled grains， which has larger and more dimples than that of the other two samples. The micro-hardness values of AM21 and AM11 are both about 81.5HV， higher than 73.1HV of AM12. The horizontal and vertical tensile strengths of the AM21 inclined wall sample are 255.7，224.4MPa， the yield strengths are 103.8，96.0 MPa， and the elongations reach 13.1% and 8.2%. The tensile strengths and elongations are both greater than those of AM11 and AM12 samples， but the yield strengths are close. The AM21 inclined wall has much better strength and plasticity， and verify that the more perpendicular the inclined wall of magnesium alloy arc additive manufacturing is， the better the mechanical properties such as strength and plasticity.

In order to explore the forming mechanism of direct energy deposition of magnesium-lithium alloy wire with high lithium content, this study introduces a novel approach utilizing Cold Metal Transfer Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (CMT-WAAM) to successfully fabricate thin-walled structures of LA103Z Mg–Li alloy. A comprehensive comparison was conducted to evaluate the microstructure and mechanical properties of different regions on CMT-WAAM samples, in addition to cast and rolled samples. The microstructure of CMT-WAAM samples is mainly composed of β-Li phase and fine needle shaped α-Mg phase, exhibiting a notable divergence from the microstructure observed in cast and rolled samples. It is noteworthy that the mechanical properties along the deposition direction exhibited significant variability in CMT-WAAM samples, but no significant anisotropy is discerned in the mechanical properties along the deposition and scanning directions. The discrepancies in mechanical properties across different regions are predominantly attributed to variations in grain size, and the size and proportion of the α-Mg phase and secondary phases, which are related to the low heat input and high cooling rate of the CMT-WAAM process. The mean tensile strength of CMT-WAAM samples is 159.5 MPa, marking a respective increase of 30.7% and 13.9% compared to cast and rolled samples. These findings underscore the outstanding strength of CMT-WAAM samples compared to conventionally formed samples. This study provides novel insights into additive manufacturing of dual-phase Mg–Li alloys for large-scale complex structures.

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of Mg–Al-RE alloy is an essential technology for producing high-quality large-scale components with high manufacturing flexibility. In this study, WAAM was utilized to fabricate a thin-wall component made of Mg-8.2Al-0.6Y-0.4Ce (AE81) alloy. The microstructure and tensile properties of the fabricated component were investigated. The results showed that the as-built AE81 alloy exhibits superior isotropic tensile strengths and a homogeneous equiaxed α-Mg grains structure. Additionally, the alloy demonstrated a minimal growth in grain size after high-temperature solid solution treatment due to the presence of thermally stable Al11/rare earth (RE)3 phases at grain boundaries. Further ageing treatment induces the formation of high-density of β-Mg17Al12 precipitates within the α-Mg grains, resulting in a considerable precipitation strengthening effect. Consequently, the heat-treated AE81 alloy demonstrated significantly enhanced tensile strength of 280 MPa and acceptable ductility of 4.6%. The results also revealed that the formation of equiaxed grains during WAAM contributed to the isotropic mechanical properties. These findings can facilitate advancements in AM processes and the development of high-performance Mg alloys.

Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technique has introduced a novel approach for producing complex Ti–6Al–4V parts with metric dimensions. However, the produced part leads to the development of a strong texture and anisotropic mechanical properties due to the formation of large columnar β grains. To resolve this issue, the plastic deformation of each deposited track through hammer peening was developed as a means to refine these large β grains. In this study, we have investigated an innovative approach to further enhance the efficiency of β grain refinement by minimizing the arc heat input associated with previous deposited layer, which is achieved by employing a C-type filler wire. Our findings reveal a notable enhancement in grain refinement efficiency through the utilization of a C-type filler wire with peening process, as compared to available conventional commercial round shape filler wire. Specifically, the employment of the C-type filler wire results in a reduced melt pool penetration depth of WAAM Ti–6Al–4V (3.3 mm), compared to the commercially available round shape (R-Type) filler wire (4.48 mm). Within the plastically deformed region by peening, fine and randomly oriented β grains are observed, extending to a depth of deformation reaching 844 ± 32.65 μm. Peening WAAM Ti–6Al–4V with the C-type filler wire leads to the development of isotropic mechanical properties in both horizontal and vertical directions, offering high strength due to the presence of small equiaxed β grains and thin α laths (0.56 ± 0.18 μm), in contrast to the use of conventional commercial round shape filler wire.

Mg-Gd-Y-Zn-Zr alloy is an important lightweight material in the aerospace field. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) provides a new route to fabricate large Mg alloy components. Here, a Mg-8Gd-4Y–1Zn-0.5Zr (wt.%) alloy was fabricated using WAAM based on the cold metal transfer (CMT) process. Subsequently, a short-time solid solution + aging treatment was designed to tailor the microstructure. In the as-fabricated condition, the microstructure mainly consisted of fine α-Mg, network (Mg,Zn)3(Gd,Y) eutectic phase, and lamellar γ′ basal precipitate. After 500 °C-1 h short-time solid solution, the eutectic phase rapidly dissolved, the long-period stacking ordered (LPSO) phase formed, and the fine grain was maintained. Due to the good deformation capacity of the fine grains and the kinking deformation capacity of the LPSO phase, the ductility was significantly improved from 5.2 ± 0.4% to 15.5 ± 1.1%. After further 200 °C-64 h artificial aging, dense β′ prismatic precipitates formed. Thanks to the synergistic strengthening of the fine grains and β′ prismatic precipitates, a yield strength of 242 ± 4 MPa was achieved. However, the kinking deformation of the LPSO phase was inhibited, resulting in a drastic decrease of ductility to 6.1 ± 0.5%. Overall, the combination of strength and ductility of the CMT-based WAAM-processed Mg-Gd-Y-Zn-Zr alloy under an optimized heat treatment regime can be superior to those of the cast Mg-Gd-Y-Zn-Zr alloys with similar contents of Gd and Y elements. This work can guide further performance optimization for WAAM-processed Mg-Gd-Y-Zn-Zr alloys.

Layered stainless steel samples were manufactured using Plasma Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing by depositing alternating layers of two dissimilar stainless steels onto an AISI 316L substrate. The selected materials were the M430 ferritic and M316L austenitic stainless steels. Comprehensive microstructural characterization in different areas, including interfaces between the two different materials, was achieved through optical microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction. Results revealed good weldability among the two-layered steels and on the substrate. Also, a gradient duplex structure was observed mainly at the layer interfaces, suggesting a nuanced blending of properties in the deposited zone. To establish a direct correlation with mechanical properties in the observed structures, macro and micro-hardness tests were conducted along the cross-section. These tests evidenced the presence of a harder phase along the interface compared to the individual materials. The microstructural analysis corroborated the presence of mixing between phases in conjunction with some areas of delta ferrite.

Wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technology offers an effective approach to fabricating complex metallic components. However, the existing WAAM process is limited in producing a metallic component with high mechanical strength. In this study, the ultrasonic strengthening grinding process (USGP) was proposed to enhance the mechanical properties of WAAM-processed 06Cr19Ni9 steel. A multiphase abrasive, comprising zirconia ceramic balls, brown corundum powder, and strengthening liquid, was propelled by an ultrasonic vibration and randomly impacted on the surface of the WAAM-processed sample. Subsequently, a uniaxial tensile test was conducted to evaluate its mechanical properties. The evolutions of microhardness, microstructure, and phase transformation were comprehensively analyzed. The results revealed that UGSP treatment promotes the generation of dendritic grains and dislocations, facilitates phase transitions, and augments stacking fault and twin band sizes. These cumulative effects enhanced the tensile properties of 06Cr19Ni9 steel. The resulted yield strength and tensile strength achieves a value of ∼970 MPa and ∼1032 MPa, respectively, which increased by ∼43.73% and ∼95.96% compared to the untreated sample. The finding suggested that the proposed method has great application prospects in improving mechanical properties of WAAM-processed components and has the advantages of high efficiency, low cost, and small equipment size.

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) stands as an efficient and cost-effective method for producing large-scale engineering components while minimizing waste. This study explores the influence of WAAM process parameters on nickel aluminum bronze (NAB) parts, focusing on the wire feed rate (WFR) as a key factor governing heat input and its effects on bead geometry, microstructure, and mechanical properties. The investigation involved depositing a single bead from NAB alloy while varying the WFS within the 2–7 m/min range, resulting in heat inputs ranging from 20.600 to 57.960 kJ/m. The results revealed that increasing heat input up to 34.944 kJ/m led to an augmentation in the bead dimensions and increased hardness due to κ-precipitates formation within the α-Cu matrix. However, with further increments in heat input to 49.088 kJ/m and 57.960 kJ/m, the bead dimensions and hardness exhibited a decline as the uniformity of intermetallic κ distribution lessened. Through optimization of WAAM process parameters, a defect-free single-wall NAB was successfully manufactured with enhanced properties. The tensile strength along the horizontal direction for the single-wall NAB alloy was found to be superior to that of the vertical direction, irrespective of the specimen's extraction regions. Additionally, the bottom specimen exhibited slightly higher tensile strength than the center and upper specimens due to being the initial layers of the wall deposited on the substrate plate, undergoing a faster cooling rate. These findings underscore the potential of WAAM as a robust method for the fabrication of larger NAB components with precision and efficiency.

Here, wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is employed to fabricate Al–Ce–Mg heat-resistant aluminum alloy, considering its capability to manufacture large complex structures more efficiently. Large-sized faceted Al11Ce3 intermetallic compounds are formed in the as-cast alloy with a hypereutectic microstructure. The microstructure is transformed to a eutectic microstructure by non-equilibrium solidification of WAAM, consisting lamellar α-Al/A111Ce3 eutectics. The WAAM alloy shows enhanced mechanical strength and ductility at 200 °C, compared with the as-cast alloy. The significant improvements of ultimate tensile strength and elongation for the WAAM alloy are correlated with its higher strain hardening rate, along with the transition from cleavage fracture to dimple fracture. The cracking of All1Ce3 particles occurs preferentially during the elastic deformation stage, as revealed by in-situ testing, and the strain hardening capability of the as-cast alloy is reduced. Pore defects, 0.15 % in volume fraction, are produced via WAAM processing, and the plastic deformation promotes the pore growth and mergence, increases the pore volume fraction, and decreases the pore sphericity. Our results demonstrate that WAAM is strongly attractive for the fabrication of Al–Ce–Mg alloys, due to the enhanced high-temperature strength-ductility synergy.

Magnesium (Mg) alloys are the lightest structural metallic material, but it is hard to be applied to various industrial fields due to the crystallographic nature that is composed with hexagonal closed packed (HCP). Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) could be a key to fabricating Mg parts with large sizes and complex designs. It has numerous advantages such as high material efficiency, short-delivery time by faster manufacturing speed, easy to modify, etc. Yet, most of the research mentioned the grain coarsening and degradation in mechanical properties when fabricating WAAM products using Mg alloy wires. To solve the problems, a solution was suggested with supposition that the lessen the deposit metal size a little by changing to the finer wire diameter can reduce the actual heat input and heat accumulation during the WAAM process. In this research, the WAAM of AZ31B has been conducted using a wire diameter of 1.0 mm rather using the 1.2 mm that is used in common. It was found that the finer (about 90 %) and equiaxed microstructure was composing the WAAM product made of wire diameter of 1.0 mm, and it results in about two times higher mechanical strength.

In this study the nickel-aluminide intermetallic cladded on AISI 1010 steed using dual wire arc process. The nickel-aluminide is fabricated in situ through an arc provided by a gas tungsten arc welding process and changing aluminum wire feeding rate. The research findings reveal that at a constant Ni wire feeding rate of 450 mm/min, by decreasing the Al wire feeding rate lower than 800 mm/min, the instability of the melt pool prevents the formation of a uniform deposit on the substrate. Although deposition has been done at an Al wire feeding rate higher than 1600 mm/min, transverse cracks have formed in the clad layer. Increasing the aluminum wire feeding rate from 1000 to 1400 mm/min decreases the dendritic arm size from 9.2 ± 0.1 to 4.1 ± 0.3 μm. Although unreacted nickel is visible in the microstructure at the Al wire feeding rate of 1000 mm/min, at a high feeding rate (1400 mm/min), most of the microstructure contains AlNi and Ni3Al intermetallic compounds. With the rise in Al wire feeding rate from 1000 to 1400 mm/min, both yield strength and ultimate tensile strength increase from 521.45 ± 14.16 to 620.89 ± 16.08 MPa and from 762.11 ± 19.89 to 855.65 ± 21.54 MPa, respectively. Intriguingly, the clad layer's tensile toughness decreases from 26.51 ± 2.43 to 18.32 ± 2.56 MJ m−3. By increasing the wire feeding rate from 1000 to 1400 mm/min, the wear rate at room temperature, 500 °C, and 800 °C increases by 61.2, 45.7, and 44.3%, respectively.

Cold Metal Transfer-Based Wire Arc Directed Energy Deposition (CMT-WA-DED) presents a promising avenue for the rapid fabrication of components crucial to automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries. However, the susceptibility to fatigue of CMT-WA-DED-produced AZ31 Mg alloy components has impeded their widespread adoption for critical load-bearing applications. In this study, a comprehensive investigation into the fatigue behaviour of WA-DED-fabricated AZ31 Mg alloy has been carried out and compared to commercially available wrought AZ31 alloy. Our findings indicate that the as-deposited parts exhibit a lower fatigue life than wrought Mg alloy, primarily due to poor surface finish, tensile residual stress, porosity, and coarse grain microstructure inherent in the WA-DED process. Low Plasticity Burnishing (LPB) treatment is applied to mitigate these issues, which induce significant plastic deformation on the surface. This treatment resulted in a remarkable improvement of fatigue life by 42%, accompanied by a reduction in surface roughness, grain refinement and enhancement of compressive residual stress levels. Furthermore, during cyclic deformation, WA-DED specimens exhibited higher plasticity and dislocation density compared to both wrought and WA-DED + LPB specimens. A higher fraction of Low Angle Grain Boundaries (LAGBs) in WA-DED specimens contributed to multiple crack initiation sites and convoluted crack paths, ultimately leading to premature failure. In contrast, wrought and WA-DED + LPB specimens displayed a higher percentage of High Angle Grain Boundaries (HAGBs), which hindered dislocation movement and resulted in fewer crack initiation sites and less complex crack paths, thereby extending fatigue life. These findings underscore the effectiveness of LPB as a post-processing technique to enhance the fatigue performance of WA-DED-fabricated AZ31 Mg alloy components. Our study highlights the importance of LPB surface treatment on AZ31 Mg components produced by CMT-WA-DED to remove surface defects, enabling their widespread use in load-bearing applications.

In order to solve the problems of coarse grain and poor mechanical properties of wire arc additive manufacturing specimens, mechanical vibration was applied in the process of wire arc additive for manufacturing 2319 aluminum alloy, and the effects of mechanical vibration frequency and amplitude on the microstructure and mechanical properties of specimens were analyzed. The results show that the mechanical vibration improves the fluidity of the molten pool, making it more spread out, while the layer width increases and the layer height decreases. Vibration breaks the dendrites during the growth process, which refines the INZ grains by 14.49 μm and the ITZ grains by 4.68 μm. The content of solute elements at dendrites gap decreases, so that the precipitated phase becomes intermittent and fine, so that the intervals of PLC phenomenon increases, which significantly improves the elongation of the material. The longitudinal and transverse elongation increase by 38.2%, 15.7% and 29.3%, 52.5%, respectively, when the mechanical vibration frequency and mechanical vibration amplitude change, while the strength of specimen does not change significantly. It is found that the use of mechanical vibration-assisted arc additive manufacturing can significantly improve the plasticity of the specimen without affecting the strength, which provides theoretical basis and technical reference for its wide application.

Precipitation hardening (PH) stainless steels, such as 15-5PH, have a high strength combined with excellent corrosion resistance. These properties make them valuable in critical industries such as defence, construction, aerospace, energy and maritime. Recent advancements in additive manufacturing (AM) technology enable the rapid and cost-effective production of components. In the case of 15-5PH components manufactured using wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), the as-deposited mechanical properties are not suitable at present for industrial applications. This paper explores the mechanical properties of this process and alloy combination without post weld heat treatment with the aim of eventual adoption in this condition by industry. The impact of weld heat input on the microstructure and mechanical properties of stainless steel 15-5PH produced using WAAM was investigated. The microstructure was examined using hardness testing in addition to optical and electron microscopy. Furthermore, mechanical properties were measured with tensile and impact testing. Investigations were conducted on material produced using weld heat inputs of 0.223 kJ/mm and 0.565 kJ/mm. These results indicate that reducing the weld heat input leads to a minor decrease in strength but an 80% increase in impact toughness. This reduction in weld heat input is correlated with a 50% reduction in volume fraction of δ-ferrite while also noting a 55% increase in carbide precipitates. In addition, the fracture surfaces were predominantly cleavage or quasi-cleavage in morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Additive manufacturing has established itself to be advantageous beyond small-scale prototyping, now supporting full-scale production of components for a variety of applications. Despite its integration across industries, marine renewable energy technology is one largely untapped application with potential to bolster clean energy production on the global scale. Wave energy converters (WEC) are one specific facet within this realm that could benefit from AM. As such, wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has been identified as a practical method to produce larger scale marine energy components by leveraging cost-effective and readily available A36 steel feedstock material. The flexibility associated with WAAM can benefit production of WEC by producing more complex structural geometries that are challenging to produce traditionally. Additionally, for large components where fine details are less critical, the high deposition rate of WAAM in comparison to traditional wrought techniques could reduce build times by an order of magnitude. In this context of building and supporting WEC, which experience harsh marine environments, an understanding of performance under large loads and corrosive environments must be understood. Hence, WAAM and wrought A36 steel tensile samples were manufactured, and mechanical properties compared under both dry and corroded conditions. The unique microstructure created via the WAAM process was found to directly correlate to the increased ultimate tensile and yield strength compared to the wrought condition. Static corrosion testing in a simulated saltwater environment in parallel with electrochemical testing highlighted an outperformance of corroded WAAM A36 steel than wrought, despite having a slighter higher corrosion rate. Ultimately, this study shows how marine energy systems may benefit from additive manufacturing components and provides a foundation for future applications of WAAM A36 steel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the influence of various parameters on bead profiles within the wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process, specifically focusing on ER70S-6 low-carbon steel to produce thick-walled parts. The critical geometric characteristics under scrutiny are bead width (BW) and bead height (BH), with the primary goal being optimization. The research methodology incorporates the utilization of the Taguchi method, analysis of variance (ANOVA), regression modeling, and grey relational analysis (GRA) to scrutinize and enhance process parameters. The results reveal that a rise in wire feed speed (WFS) from 5 to 8 m/min and voltage (V) from 18 to 24 V leads to a substantial increase in BW, with contributions of 79.90% and 4.77%, respectively, according to ANOVA. Conversely, a rise in traverse speed (TS) from 0.3 to 0.6 m/min results in a reduction in BW by 11.90%, while the impact of gas flow rate (GFR) is relatively minor. Regarding BH, a rise in WFS within the 5–8 m/min range significantly enhances BH, with an ANOVA contribution of 17.78%. In contrast, higher voltage and TS lead to a reduction in BH, with TS exhibiting the dominant influence at 46.08%, followed by voltage at 31.13%, and WFS at 17.78%. The GFR exerts a negligible impact at 0.88%. To address the challenge of multi-objective optimization, GRA is proficiently employed, resulting in recommended process parameters for BW and BH: WFS = 8 m/min, V = 18 V, TS = 0.3 m/min, and GFR = 18 L/min. These results are robustly validated through experimental verification, affirming the accuracy of predictive models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is focused on improving material formability in hybrid wire-arc additive manufacturing comprising metal forming stages to produce small-to-medium batches of customized parts. The methodology involves fabricating wire arc additive manufactured AISI 316L stainless steel parts subjected to mechanical and thermal processing (MTP), followed by microhardness measurements, tensile testing with digital image correlation, as well as microstructure and microscopic observations. Results show that mechanical processing by pre-straining followed by thermal processing by annealing can reduce material hardness and strength, increase ductility, and eliminate anisotropy by recrystallizing the as-built dendritic-based columnar grain microstructure into an equiaxed grain microstructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]