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Recent debate has highlighted the Important significance of social partnership in further education for developing new approaches to English vocational education and training (VET). There is international evidence of the contribution that well-established social partnerships between employers, unions and government can make to deliver VET effectively. It is argued that in England VET can benefit from adopting and embedding social partnership models, especially ones in which further education (FE) colleges have a local and regional anchoring role. However, to date, England has persistently failed to implement any kind of significant social partnership for various reasons -- a crucial one being government reliance on an employer-led approach to VET. A prerequisite for developing social partnership in further education is to identify and garner support for promising governance and cooperation structures. Such identification foregrounds a conception of a rich civil society and economy, with local and regional partnerships being essential enablers. An examination of FE colleges as part of a VET system reviews the benefits of establishing a coordinated skills system providing coherent local, regional and national pathways for vocational, technical and skilled work. Such a national VET system would integrate universities, employer training, the school curriculum and careers.

This article describes the origins of learning outcomes-based qualifications in England in the 1980s. It describes the design philosophy and evolution of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) which are contrasted with content-led frameworks and qualifications such as the English National Curriculum. The design flaws of the NVQ are noted and some policy implications of the NVQ experience are remarked on. It goes on to consider the adoption of learning outcomes approaches to qualifications in the European Union, first through the introduction of the European Qualification Framework (EQF) and then of European Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations (ESCO). First, it is argued that the EQF serves as an umbrella for qualifications fundamentally incompatible with each other. Second, it is maintained that although ESCO has certain design features that liken it to the NVQ, it is also compatible with non-learning outcomes-based qualifications. Its assumptions about qualification design, based on task analysis, render it unsuitable as a template for the development of advanced vocational qualifications. The decline and fall of the NVQ and its replacement by standards-based qualification in England is described and some lessons that can be learned by policymakers are outlined. Learning outcomes-based qualifications are not fit for purpose.

Any form of professional or occupational practice that requires independent agency has to rely heavily on the judgement of its practitioners. Yet the nature of professional judgement, like the nature of judgement more generally, is poorly understood. Almost as little understood is the nature of agential responsibility. The two are closely connected. A professional is held responsible for his/her actions and negative or positive judgements about those actions are closely related to the quality of the judgements made about those actions. The question is often further complicated in professional contexts when choices have to be made in constrained situations where there is little or no opportunity for leisurely decision-making. In the professional world, vocational and professional education has an essential role to play in the formation of deliberative judgement and its subsequent extension into contexts of constraint. Indeed, the development of deliberative judgement is a condition for the development of satisfactory decision-making in constrained circumstances. VET provides the opportunities and resources for the development of judgemental and deliberative powers across the range of professional activity. The resource of systematic knowledge underpinning an occupation is a key element in professional judgement and decision-making. The argument will be illustrated with practical examples.

Exercising autonomy in the workplace is a prerequisite for the acquisition of complex perceptual, judgement, and decision making skills widely agreed to be criteria of vocational expertise. It has wide workplace relevance. Despite the importance of autonomy for developing vocational expertise there is virtually nothing on methodologies for measuring autonomy in the British workplace in the literature. This article reports on a new approach using an application of the methodology of the Transformers Project to measure workplace autonomy in England. Workplace know how broadly distinguishes into skills required to perform particular types of tasks, and transversal level abilities, both those generally encompassed by planning and individual ones such as communication, critical thinking, evaluation, problem solving and teamwork. Agency in the workplace is the formation and implementation of intentions over relatively extended periods. Such agency is manifested as the ability to form and carry through projects involving planning and other transversal abilities. The conceptual approach to workplace autonomy taken here is that a reasonable proxy for and measure of it is the display of transversal abilities.

The article assesses the role comparative research plays from the 1980s in understanding vocational education and training (VET) systems in Europe, driven by political, economic, social and labour market changes. This research has been transformed, moving from national comparisons of VET systems, grounded in institutional theory and engaging with convergence versus divergence debates or human capital theory, to the varieties of capitalism approach considering groups of countries as representative of particular capitalist economies, to transcending national boundaries and emphasising capitalist diversity, governance and labour agency. Drawing on examples of research in which the authors and others have been involved, particularly on the construction industry, the article traces this development and shows how, despite governance weaknesses, comparative research has been enriched by the addition of a European Union level through the introduction of tools, such as the European Qualifications Framework. Four dimensions are proposed -- labour market, governance, education and competence -- capable of identifying VET 'families' and intra-national variations and capturing the dynamics of VET systems. Through a multi-dimensional and multi-level framework, comparative VET research can provide a deeper understanding of how and why VET systems respond to the challenges of technological, economic and environmental change.

Vocational education and training (VET) can play a transformative role in reducing CO[subscript 2] emissions and improving the energy efficiency of buildings across Europe. Nearly zero energy building (NZEB) requires an energy literate workforce, with broader and deeper theoretical knowledge, higher technical and precision skills, interdisciplinary understanding, and a wide range of transversal competences. Through an investigation into VET for low energy construction (LEC) in 10 European countries, the article identifies a range of different strategies advanced under constraints imposed by the VET systems and construction labour markets. At one extreme, representing the 'high road', LEC elements are mainstreamed into broad-based occupational profiles, curricula and qualifications, whilst at the other, the 'low' road, short, specific and one-off LEC courses simply aim to plug existing 'skills' gaps. It is argued that the 'high road' approach, in encompassing a broad concept of agency, successfully addresses NZEB requirements whereas the 'low road' represents an instrumentalist approach to labour that jeopardises the achievement of higher energy efficiency standards. The article concludes by presenting a transparency tool set within the European Qualifications Framework, against which different VET for LEC programmes can be assessed.

What is the role of textbooks in promoting teaching, and how does this role relate to teachers' subject knowledge, qualifications and autonomy? In this article, we study one aspect of the relationship between the use of textbooks and good teaching by examining how teachers' subject knowledge in the subject they are expected to teach relates to how they use and rely on textbooks. To do so, we draw on ethnographic data including classroom observation of geography lessons and teacher interviews in upper primary government school classrooms in Bihar, India. We analysed teaching episodes in terms of distinct pedagogical strategies, namely, ostensive teaching, acquaintance knowledge and memory. These categories were identified through normative content analysis which recognises the distinct forms of knowledge, and specifically, different types of inferential relationships. This categorisation enables us to distinguish between teachers with and without a postgraduate or undergraduate qualification in geography in their use of the textbook and pedagogical strategies. Our findings support the claims of those who maintain that textbooks can be a powerful pedagogical tool, and not simply a teaching script in the hands of poorly qualified teachers.

Much of the debate on the nature of knowing how has been concerned with whether it is to be conceived of as an ability (know-how or KH) or as the possession of propositional knowledge (KT), perhaps in a practical form. Comparatively little has been written about knowing wh (KWh) constructions and the ways in which they do or do not fit into this debate. Do such debates have any bearing on the practical concerns of the educators of professionals? This paper considers the case of Knowing Wh constructions and their epistemic status with reference to their use in professional contexts. The argument to be developed is that KT and KH are distinct but closely related epistemic abilities and that in assessing professional capacity we often find them together as part of an overall professional competence. The use of KWh constructions in professional settings supports this contention, as they can occur as cases of both KT and KH, depending on context. The claim is illustrated by examining and interpreting KWh constructions in professional qualifications and interpreting them in the context of what is required to make sense of them as elements of qualifications.

This article considers how professional knowledge should be assessed. It is maintained that the assessment of professional know-how raises distinctive issues from the assessment of know-how more generally. Intellectualist arguments which suggest that someone's giving an account of how to "F" should suffice for attributing to them knowledge of how to "F" are set out. The arguments fail to show that there is no necessary distinction between two kinds of know-how, namely the ability to "F" and knowing that w is a way to "F," such that the latter is more fundamental. The consequences of this failure for our understanding of professional assessment are then considered. The issue of the assessment of tacit knowledge is then addressed. It is concluded that there is no context-dependent codifiable or articulable propositional knowledge of how to "F" which could be substituted for being able to F and that therefore tacit knowledge can only be assessed in performance. The parallel with Gettier cases is reviewed and it is concluded that the provenance of accounts of and justifications for the attribution of know-how are not matters of indifference to its assessment. Finally, the question of evaluability or what Ryle would have called the applicability of intelligence epithets is discussed in relation to its relevance to our procedures for assessing practical knowledge. Once again, it is concluded that excellent performance is necessary to attribute excellence in know-how. However, the ability to give an account of how and why an agent would do something in hypothetical circumstances is also very important for the assessment of professional knowledge.

This article shows the relationship between know-how and conceptual ability with particular reference to professional education. It is argued that although concept mastery is necessary to expert performance, it is not sufficient. Starting with Geach's account of concepts, distinctions are made between concept acquisition and concept mastery. An outline of the transition from concept acquisition to concept mastery is offered which stresses the importance of learning in operational conditions in order to achieve expert performance, which itself implies concept mastery. Context-sensitive aspects of concept mastery in the form of "activity concepts" (Luntley) are considered and their importance recognised. A detailed critique of the non-propositional intellectualist account of know-how offered by Bengson and Moffett is made, and the implications of the article's position for the conduct of professional education, along the lines of Germany's Dual System, are set out.

This paper considers how far Anglo Saxon conceptions of vocational education and training have influenced European Union vocational education and training policy, especially given the disparate approaches to vocational education and training across Europe. Two dominant approaches can be identified: the dual system (exemplified by Germany); and output based models (exemplified by the National Vocational Qualification "English style"). Within the European Union itself, the design philosophy of the English output-based model proved in the first instance influential in attempts to develop tools to establish equivalence between vocational qualifications across Europe, attempts that resulted in the learning outcomes approach of the European Qualifications Framework, the credit-based model of European Vocational Education and Training Credit System and the task-based construction of occupation profiles exemplified by European Skills, Competences and Occupations tool. The governance model for the English system is, however, predicated on employer demand for "skills" and this does not fit well with the social partnership model encompassing knowledge, skills and competences that is dominant in northern Europe. These contrasting approaches have led to continual modifications to the tools, as these sought to harmonise and reconcile national vocational education and training requirements with the original design. A tension is evident in particular between national and regional approaches to vocational education and training, on the one hand, and the policy tools adopted to align European vocational education and training better with the demands of the labour market, including at sectoral level, on the other. This paper explores these tensions and considers the prospects for the successful operation of these tools, paying particular attention to the European Qualification Framework, European Vocational Education and Training Credit System and European Skills, Competences and Occupations tool and the relationships between them and drawing on studies of the construction and furniture industries.

This article will consider the claim that the possession of concepts is innate rather than learned. Innatism about concept learning is explained through consideration of the work of Fodor and Chomsky. First, an account of concept formation is developed. Second the argument against the claim that concepts are learned through the construction of a learning paradox developed by Fodor is considered. It is argued that, despite initial plausibility, the learning paradox is not, in fact, a paradox at all as it rests on eliding the distinction between recognising something and recognising it as a something. The plausibility of eliding this distinction rests, in turn, on begging the question as to whether concept possession is a necessary condition for recognition of objects, events, properties etc. Fodor's positive arguments for innatism, as set out in LOT2 are considered and parallels with his account of stereotype formation and associationist accounts of concept formation are considered. The explanatory persuasiveness of this revised account of concept activation through the generation of stereotypes is weak. The article then examines the distinction between concept possession and concept mastery in greater detail, arguing that innatists have difficulty in accounting for the phenomenon of concept mastery, including within the contexts of formal and professional education.

In this paper, we argue from principle that teacher education must enable a positive relationship between educational research and teaching knowledge and practice. We discuss two popular conceptions of good teaching, which conceive of the teacher as craft worker and as executive technician, and suggest that, while each of these aspects of knowing reflects something of the qualities that good teachers need, any one on its own is insufficient. In contrast to such mono-dimensional conceptions, a research-based textured notion of professional judgement encompasses a complementary and mutually enriching relationship between different aspects of professional knowledge and practice. We identify three interconnected and complementary aspects of teachers' professional knowledge: "situated understanding"; "technical knowledge"; and "critical reflection." Accordingly, teaching as professional endeavour demands of teachers practical know-how, conceptual understandings of education, teaching and learning, and the ability to interpret and form critical judgements on existing knowledge and its relevance to their particular situation. We conclude that in principle research can both enrich and be enriched by teachers' professional knowledge and practice but that to build this relationship in a holistic way into teacher education programmes and partnership models presents considerable practical challenges.

Recent reviews of vocational qualifications in England have noted problems with their restricted nature. However, the underlying issue of how to conceptualise professional agency in curriculum design has not been properly addressed, either by the Richard or the Whitehead reviews. Drawing on comparative work in England and Europe it is argued that vocational and professional curriculum design requires a transparency tool in order to map out the various categories of professional agency and their relationships with each other that need to be taken account of in curriculum design. This tool is not prescriptive but illustrates critical choices that curriculum designers need to make. The categories of agency include: skill, transversal ability, project management and occupational capacity. The further categories of contingent and systematic knowledge are also described, as well as personal characteristics relevant to work (competences). The exercise reveals that certain important categories are not usually taken into account within the English context to the detriment of curriculum design. Some technical issues concerning vocational curriculum design and assessment, such as permeability, levelling, referencing and trust are then discussed.

This article discusses three related aspects of know-how: skill, transversal abilities and project management abilities, which are often not distinguished within either the educational or the philosophical literature. Skill or the ability to perform tasks is distinguished from possession of technique which is a necessary but not sufficient condition for possession of a skill. The exercise of skill, contrary to much opinion, usually involves character aspects of agency. Skills usually have a social dimension and are subject to normative appraisal. Transversal abilities rely on but are not reducible to the exercise of skill, but require a further degree of attention and seriousness in their exercise. Transversal abilities can be displayed in different ways using different skills, depending on context. They include: planning, communicating, evaluating--all important features of successful professional action. Project management or the putting into effect of relatively long-term sequences of action involves the articulation of different transversal abilities. It is a form of agency which is considered to be important in some European vocational and professional education systems and usually involves a strong social dimension. The article concludes with a discussion of the educational implications of these distinctions and of their interrelationships. (Contains 11 notes.)

Three kinds of knowledge usually recognised by epistemologists are identified and their relevance for curriculum design is discussed. These are: propositional knowledge, know-how and knowledge by acquaintance. The inferential nature of propositional knowledge is argued for and it is suggested that propositional knowledge in fact presupposes the ability to know how to make appropriate inferences within a body of knowledge, whether systematic or unsystematic. This thesis is developed along lines suggested in the earlier work of Paul Hirst. The different kinds of know-how and their relationships are discussed and it is suggested that they occupy different places and different relationships in any curricular hierarchy. The changing role that knowledge by acquaintance plays within this hierarchy is also discussed. Implications of this account for the current National Curriculum and for curriculum design more generally are discussed, looking at History, Science and Design Technology as examples. (Contains 3 notes.)