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"Doming–rifting–spreading" constitute the main phases of classical plate tectonics. The Middle–Upper Jurassic succession of East Greenland is interpreted as reflecting formation, deflation and onlap of a rift dome, similar to contemporaneous rift domes in the North Sea, Denmark and southern Sweden. The succession forms a northwards backstepping and onlapping early rift succession in the N–S oriented basin. Deposition ranged from coastal over shallow marine and slope sands, through offshore siltstones to deep basinal mudstones. An outlier on the island Geographical Society Ø fills an important gap in the documentation of the doming, deflation and progressive onlap. Bajocian deposition took place in a shallow marine shelf. This was followed in the late Oxfordian by slope and base‐of‐slope deposition. The backstepping succession onlaps progressively older rocks towards the north, illustrating the gradual deflation, erosion and onlap of the dome, constituting the early part of the doming–rifting–spreading phases of classical plate tectonics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution and final closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean are one of the most important geological events that have occurred on Earth since the Mesozoic. However, the evolution of the Neo-Tethys is not well constrained, in particular whether its opening occurred in the Permian or the Triassic and whether a plume was involved with its opening or not. In this study, we present geochronological and geochemical data for mafic igneous rocks in mélanges along the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone (YZSZ) in southern Tibet to constrain the timing and mechanism of opening the Neo-Tethys Ocean. Based on field observations, the YZSZ mélanges can be divided into three segments. The western (west of Zhongba) and eastern (Sangsang-Renbu) segments are composed of ocean plate stratigraphy representing accretionary complexes that formed during subduction of Neo-Tethyan oceanic lithosphere beneath the southern margin of the Asian continent. Mélanges in the central segment (Zhongba-eastern Saga) typically have a siliciclastic matrix, and represent Tethyan Himalayan strata that were structurally mixed with the southern margin of the Asian continent. Based on our and previously published geochemical data, the mafic rocks in the YZSZ mélanges are ocean island basalt (OIB)-like, with ages in the Late Permian-Middle Triassic, the Middle-Late Jurassic, and the Early Cretaceous, respectively. An OIB-like block with an age of ca. 253 Ma is identified from the Zhongba mélanges in the western segment, and it is the oldest OIB lithology yet identified in the YZSZ mélanges related to the evolution of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. Geochemical features indicate that this OIB-like block is distinct from typical OIBs and would be formed during continental rifting to incipient seafloor spreading. In the framework of plate divergent-convergent coupling systems and based on literature data for early Middle Triassic seamounts, radiolarian cherts, and normal mid-ocean ridge basalt-like oceanic crust, we conclude that opening of the Yarlung Zangbo Neo-Tethys Ocean would mainly occur at ~250–243 Ma in the Early Triassic, not later than the early phase of Middle Triassic. In addition, a mantle plume was not involved in opening the Yarlung Zangbo Neo-Tethys Ocean. On the other hand, we have also identified a suite of ca. 160 Ma OIB-like basaltic sills from the Bainang mélanges in the eastern segment, which is the same age as the OIB lithologies previously reported in the Zhongba mélanges. Based on the sill-like occurrence and absence of plume-related rock associations in this region, the Bainang OIB-like rocks might result from Middle-Late Jurassic continental rifting in northern Gondwana. Magmatism related to this tectonic event is preserved in both the YZSZ mélanges and Himalayan strata, but its tectonic significance requires further investigation. Based on this study of the YZSZ mélanges and the previous studies of YZSZ ophiolites, Gangdese belt igneous rocks, and sedimentary rocks, we have reconstructed the entire Wilson Cycle of the Yarlung Zangbo Neo-Tethys Ocean, mainly involving continental rifting and ocean opening, subduction initiation, ultraslow-spreading ridge-trench conversion, subduction re-initiation, and oceanic closure and initial India-Asia collision for the tectonic emplacement of ophiolites. These processes were associated not only with magmatic flare-ups and lulls in the Gangdese belt but also with two stages of ophiolite obduction. Our data therefore provide new insights into the evolution of the Yarlung Zangbo Neo-Tethys Ocean and related Tethyan geodynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classification, superimposed evolution and sedimentary filling of prototype basins are analyzed based on the Wilson cycle principle of plate theory, by dissecting the evolution history of 483 sedimentary basins around the world since the Precambrian, combined with the three stress environments of tension, compression and shear. It is found that plate tectonic evolution controls the superimposed development process and petroleum-bearing conditions of the prototype basins in three aspects: first, more than 85% of the sedimentary basins in the world are developed from the superimposed development of two or more prototype basins; second, the superposition evolution process of the prototype basin takes Wilson cycle as the cycle and cycles in a fixed trajectory repeatedly. In each stage of a cycle, a specific type of prototype basin can be formed; third, each prototype basin can form a unique tectonic-sedimentary system, which determines its unique source, reservoir, cap conditions etc. For hydrocarbon accumulation, the later superimposed prototype basin can change the oil and gas accumulation conditions of the earlier prototype basin, and may form new petroleum systems. Based on this, by defining the type of a current basin as its prototype basin formed by the latest plate tectonic movement, 14 types of prototype basins can be classified in the world, namely, intracontinental growth rift, intracontinental aborted rift, intercontinental rift, passive continental margin, interior craton, trench, fore-arc rift, back-arc rift, back-arc depression, back-arc small ocean, peripheral foreland, back-arc foreland, strike-slip pull-apart, and strike-slip flexural basins. The classification scheme can ensure the uniqueness of the types of individual sedimentary basin, and make it possible to predict their oil and gas potential scientifically through analogy.

Continental rifts can form when and where continents are stretched. If the driving forces can overcome lithospheric strength, a rift valley forms. Rifts are characterised by faults, sedimentary basins, earthquakes and/or volcanism. With the right set of weakening feedbacks, a rift can evolve to break a continent into conjugate rifted margins such as those found along the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. When, however, strengthening processes overtake weakening, rifting can stall and leave a failed rift, such as the North Sea or the West African Rift. A clear definition of continental break-up is still lacking because the transition from continent to ocean can be complex, with tilted continental blocks and regions of exhumed lithospheric mantle. Rifts and rifted margins not only shape the face of our planet, they also have a clear societal impact, through hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanism, landslides and CO2 release, and through their resources, such as fertile land, hydrocarbons, minerals and geothermal potential. This societal relevance makes an understanding of the many unknown aspects of rift processes as critical as ever. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Lesvos ophiolite, Greece, was recently identified as an analog to the External Liguride Unit formed at an ocean‐continent‐transition (OCT) setting. To further study the evolutionary history of this body, we analyzed highly siderophile element abundances and Re‐Os isotopic compositions of 14 Lesvos peridotites, in combination with petrology, bulk‐rock major, and trace element geochemistry. Almost all the Lesvos peridotites fall within the field of global OCT and mid‐ocean‐ridge (MOR) peridotites, indicating that these rocks have not experienced subduction‐related processes. The near‐horizontal 187Os/188Os versus Al2O3 trend over a wide range of Al2O3 (0.45–3.66 wt. %) may have been caused by recent melt depletion during rifting and thinning of the Lesvos lithosphere. Combining data from available global ophiolitic peridotites, we find that a large proportion of the more Al‐depleted supra‐subduction‐zone (SSZ) peridotites show lower Os/Ir, higher Pd/Ir and remarkably elevated radiogenic Os relative to other tectonic environments (OCT and MOR). By linking this kind of geochemical evolution to the Wilson Cycle, a complete picture emerges: (a) In the OCT to MOR stages, the extensional rifting environment may lead to mild to moderate melt depletion, followed by, or associated with, infiltration of S‐saturated (high fS2) basaltic magmas; (b) when progressing into the SSZ stage, more extreme degrees of mantle melt depletion may be driven by aqueous fluids in the sub‐arc mantle. During this stage, high‐fO2 slab‐derived fluids and/or S‐undersaturated (low fS2) boninitic magmas may infiltrate the sub‐arc mantle, followed by subsequent S‐saturated forearc basaltic magma infiltration. Plain Language Summary: Establishing the relationship between the geochemical evolution and geodynamic mechanism of the Earth's upper mantle is an important objective of the study of ophiolites. There are two major aims of this study: (a) Using highly siderophile elemental (HSE) and Re‐Os isotopic geochemical tools to evaluate the tectonic setting for the Greek Lesvos peridotites; (b) on the basis of geochemical and isotopic comparisons among available global ophiolitic peridotites from various tectonic settings to reconstruct the Earth's upper mantle evolution. First, we find that although the Lesvos peridotites underwent S‐saturated melt overprinting after primary melt extraction that was related to the Mesozoic Pangea breakup, they did not experience subduction‐related processes. Second, we summarize that supra‐subduction‐zone (SSZ) peridotites in other ophiolites have not only recorded extremely high degrees of melt depletion but also show significantly higher Pd/Ir ratios and more radiogenic 187Os/188Os, compared with ocean‐continent‐transition (OCT) and mid‐ocean‐ridge (MOR) peridotites that formed beneath spreading centers. We believe that episodic infiltrations by S‐saturated and/or undersaturated melts/fluids may be an important driving force for these mantle compositional changes during the Wilson Cycle, which can also cause HSE‐bearing sulfides/alloys to be abnormally enriched, and possibly lead to formation of platinum group elements (PGE)‐rich chromite ore deposits. Key Points: The Lesvos peridotites belong to ocean‐continent‐transition (OCT) mantle tectonites with relatively unfractionated highly siderophile elemental (HSE) patternsThe Lesvos peridotites were formed recently, synchronous with Pangea breakup that led to formation of embryonic Neo‐Tethyan oceanic basinEpisodic infiltration by S‐saturated or undersaturated melts/fluids, dominates the evolution of lithosphere during the Wilson Cycle [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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[Display omitted] The Zagros orogenic belt is a major mountain system located in southwestern Iran and extending into northeastern Iraq and southeastern Turkey. It was formed as a result of the Late Paleogene-Early Neogene Arabian-Eurasian continental collision, where its proto-basin was impacted by the tectonic evolution during the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys development. The entire evolution history can be summarized through an integrated model of three Wilson cycles. This paper aims to provide an understanding of the complexities of plate motions that led to the evolution of the Zagros Fold-and-Thrust Belt, by integrating the time and space evolution of supercontinents. A comprehensive review of the Arabian plate tectonics suggests three main tectonic stages, including a period of rifting from the Late Cambrian to Carboniferous, a period of ocean closure during the Late Triassic and Jurassic, and a final collision during the Cenozoic. These tectonic evolution stages encompassed multiple episodes of basin uplifting and subsidence, marked by wide-spread fault reactivation and fold deformation. Three styles of deformation were identified and characterized, including thin-skinned, thick-skinned, and basement deformation. The closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean resulted in compressional tectonics that reactivated dormant faults, and emplaced gypsum-salt sedimentary caprock. The genetic analysis concurrently proposes a scientific framework for the characterization of structural deformation in similar convergent plate systems globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New zircon U-Pb (SHRIMP and LA-ICPMS), elemental and Nd-Sr geochemistry data on rhyolitic metavolcanic and metavolcaniclastic rocks of NE Brazil characterize widespread arc-related phenomena during the Neoproterozoic, related to the Conceição-type or Stage I plutonic rocks. U-Pb zircon dating pinpoint the main phase of magmatic activity at ca. 635-600 Ma in the 700-km long sigmoidal Piancó-Alto Brígida domain, but other important flare-ups might have taken place at ca. 670-690, 730-760, 810-820 and 860-880 Ma. A comprehensive compilation of detrital zircon data from metavolcanosedimentary successions of the entire Borborema Province (n=5532) confirms the occurrence of a quasi-continuum Neoproterozoic spectra punctuated by peaks at those same age intervals separated by minor lulls. Low Th/U rims of zircon crystals dated at ca. 577 Ma provide an estimate of the age of regional transpressional metamorphism. Samples of all age ranges are mostly calc-alkaline, magnesian and peraluminous, with moderately to highly fractionated LREE enrichment, negative Nb-Ta anomalies akin to convergent settings, and plot mainly within the volcanic arc field in tectonic discrimination diagrams. Nd-Sr isotope systematics indicate the involvement of juvenile Neoproterozoic melts from the mantle wedge, which upon mixing with Archean-Paleoproterozoic basement and contamination with the host metasedimentary rocks yield Mesoproterozoic T DM mainly at 1.14-1.44 Ga, near-chondritic εNd(t) and 87Sr/86Sr i 0.703-0.710. We put forward a model involving a major continental back-arc zone related to the development of the Conceição magmatic arc, akin to the modern-day Taupo volcanic zone of New Zealand, crosscutting NE Brazil and presumably continuing through the schist belts of Nigeria and Cameroon. The main magmatic flare ups might have been induced by extra-arc phenomena, such as collision of the West African paleocontinent with the northwestern Borborema edge due to closure of the exterior Goiás-Pharusian Ocean, force-speeding subduction in the interior V-shaped oceanic basins that constituted the Transnordestino-Central African Ocean and generating clockwise windshield-wiper-like rotation of the blocks back towards the São Francisco-Congo paleocontinent in a complete Wilson Cycle. Unlabelled Image • A Cryogenian-Ediacaran continental magmatic arc in northeast Brazil • U-Pb zircon data indicates five possible flare-ups from ca. 880 to ca. 600 Ma • West Gondwana formed by both extroversion and introversion arc accretion mechanisms [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A geological evolution model of the Cuban archipelago is proposed with the objective of explaining the main geotectonic contexts and ages in which the main regional faults capable of generating earthquakes at present were originated, considering that this phenomenon does not seem to be fully solved in the different geological models consulted. The work was based on the assessment of the petrotectonic associations of the Cuban archipelago, identified based on the stratigraphic characteristics of the lithostratigraphic and lithodemic units described in the local and regional geological surveys, reflected in the geological maps and regulated in the Cuban Stratigraphic Lexicon of the 2013; as well as in its correspondence with the geotectonic contexts, petrotectonic associations, stages and stages established in the Wilson cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issues of tectonic inheritance in supercontinental cyclicity are considered on the basis of the contemporary domestic and foreign studies, as well as those of the author. Examples of repeated manifestations of Wilson cycles within the specific zones, as well as the paleomagnetic data on the similarity of reconstructions for supercontinents of different ages are provided. It is shown that the deep causes that predetermine this inheritance are related to weakened zones of the lithospheric mantle that control the assembly and breakup of supercontinents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite its global significance, much of the Wilson Cycle, which infers kinematic inversion from plate divergence to convergence, remains conjectural, in particular for what concerns subduction initiation. We present a high-resolution 3D thermomechanical numerical model of the Wilson Cycle, evolving from continental rifting through breakup and oceanic spreading to convergence and self-consistent subduction initiation. In the models, intra-oceanic subduction initiates off-ridge and is an intrinsically three-dimensional process. Its location is controlled by convergence-induced ridge swelling, and the subduction geometry is controlled by three main factors: (1) the inherited compositional and thermal heterogeneity of the ridge and oceanic lithosphere from rifting and seafloor spreading; (2) the curvature/obliquity of the ridge with respect to the convergence direction and (3) the duration of transition from plate divergence to convergence. The modelled mechanisms are consistent with geological records, for example in the Oman subduction-obduction system, and are undervalued elements of the Wilson Cycle. • Ridge swelling allows near-ridge intraoceanic subduction initiation. • Structural inheritance from the divergent stages of the Wilson Cycle is essential to near-ridge subduction initiation. • Obliquity of the ridge with respect to convergence direction is essential for near-ridge subduction initiation. • Ridge swelling induced near-ridge subduction initiation is compatible with the geological records of the Oman ophiolite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Pre-, syn-, and post-collisional plutons in a multi-intrusion batholithic system. • Juvenile Tonian island arc remnants preserved as roof pendants and mega-xenoliths. • Ediacaran pre-collisional tonalites/granodiorites as main bodies of the orogenic core. • Syn-collisional garnet-bearing leucogranites formed as crustal melts at 575–560 Ma. • Post-collisional undeformed A-type granites intruded at 500 Ma. High-grade metamorphism, extensive partial melting, and polyphase deformation often obliterate records of pre-collisional stages in ancient orogens, making it hard to unravel Precambrian accretionary events. In western Gondwana, the high-grade core of the Araçuaí-Ribeira Orogenic System (AROS) comprises pre-collisional rock-assemblages largely disrupted, overprinted, and remelted by collisional and post-collisional tectono-metamorphic and igneous events, hampering reconstructions of its accretionary history. Detailed studies reveled remnants of an Early Tonian (860–840 Ma) island arc, forming km-size roof-pendants and mega-xenoliths within the composite Caxixe batholith, in the boundary zone between the Araçuaí and Ribeira orogens. We further characterize the Caxixe batholith and surrounding plutons, showing that the main stage of magmatism is composed of pre-collisional orthogneisses, partially migmatized and crystallized between ca. 607–580 Ma, thus, much later than the Tonian island arc records. Those Ediacaran granitic rocks represent intrusions of calc-alkaline magmas with elemental geochemistry and isotopic (εHf(t): −6 to −10, whole-rock εNd(t): −4.9 to −9.5, and 87Sr/86Sr(i): 0.706–0.711) data correlated with the continental-margin Rio Doce arc. This contrasts with signatures indicative of a mantle source εHf(t) = +10 to + 14, εNd(t) = +0.9 to + 6.4, and 87Sr/86Sr(i) = 0.698–0.704) of the Early Tonian arc remnants. Intruding the pre-collisional granitic plutons, garnet-bearing leucogranites dated at ca. 575 Ma and a mafic intrusion of ca. 560 Ma mark the transition from the syn-collisional to late-collisional stages. Post-collisional, non-deformed, A-type granites with the most evolved isotopic signatures (εHf(t): −22; εNd(t): −5.6 to −13.2) intruded at ca. 500 Ma, ending the long-lasting orogenic history documented in the region. Our results demonstrate that a basement composed of an early Tonian juvenile arc docked with a continental margin and hosted several intrusions of an early Ediacaran continental-margin magmatic arc that, in turn, were intruded by collisional and post-collisional magmas from the Late Ediacaran to Cambrian, finally forming the main plutonic masses of the Araçuaí-Ribeira Orogenic System (AROS) core, during the complex history of western Gondwana assembly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The features of the structure and tectonic evolution of granulite gneiss belts (GGBs) are analyzed and summarized from the present-day data. Their continent-continent collision tectonic origin is supported, as well as multicycle and an inherited style of evolution expressed in multiple manifestations of granulite facies metamorphism of the belt separated by few 100 Ma. GGBs are permanently mobile structures that exhibit endogenic activity during all stages of their evolution, including intraplate conditions. Their relationship with supercontinental cyclicity is evident from (i) the spatial location of most GGBs in the margins of young oceans that originated during the breakup of Pangea, (ii) the amalgamation and breakup of ancient supercontinents along the GGBs, and (iii) the correlation between various types of granulite metamorphism of these belts and stages of supercontinental cycle. The evolution of these belts leads to complex interaction of plate and mantle plume tectonics, which is expressed in combination of continent-continent collision and underplating. The possible use of GGBs in paleotectonic analysis along with other indicators of geodynamic settings is shown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The North China Craton (NCC) is one of the important Precambrian nuclei of the globe as well as an integral component of the Paleoproterozoic supercontinent Columba. The NCC is considered in popular models as an assembly of two major crustal blocks, the Eastern and Western Blocks, which were sutured along the Trans-North China Orogen (TNCO), which represents a major Paleoproterozoic collisional orogen. The central segment of the TNCO preserves important keys to unravel the tectonic history of amalgamation and cratonization of the NCC. Here we present an overview on the lithology, geochemistry, geochronology, Lu-Hf isotopes and metamorphic history of the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic rocks in the major basement terranes from the central segment of the TNCO. The available data allow us to re-construct the major Precambrian events from the heart of the NCC as follows. (1) 2.58–2.48 Ga: amalgamation of three microblocks (Ordos, Qianhuai and Xuchang) along the Wutai granite-greenstone belt and its branch at the Zanhuang area, together with the convergence of major microblocks along other ~2.5 Ga granite-greenstone belts leading to the initial cratonization of the NCC. (2) 2.50–2.45 Ga: post-collisional extension as represented by undeformed mafic dykes and granitoid dykes or plutons, resulting in the opening of an oceanic basin along the Hengshan and Huai’an-Xuanhua Complexes. (3) 2.45–2.12 Ga: subduction in the Hengshan, Huai’an-Xuanhua and Lüliang Complexes, and simultaneous rifting in the Fuping, Wutai and Zanhuang Complexes. (4) 2.12–1.98 Ga: opening of oceanic basins in the Wutai and Fuping areas followed by double subduction of the oceanic lithosphere and arc magmatism in the Fuping, Wutai and Lüliang Complexes, with coeval rifting in the northern part as represented by the Hengshan and Huai’an-Xuanhua Complexes and the southern side as represented by the Zanhuang Complex. (5) 1.96–1.80 Ga: the assembly of the separated terranes (or complexes) driven by the amalgamation of the Western and Eastern Blocks. The collisional event may have occurred at 1.96–1.90 Ga, and the 1.88–1.80 Ga metamorphic ages might represent the retrograde cooling during exhumation. (6) Termination of the collisional event represented by post-collisional intrusions of granitoids, charnockites and pegmatites until ca. 1.74 Ga. Thus the central segment of the TNCO records a prolonged Wilson cycle following the initial cratonization of the NCC during Neoarchean, and involved multiple rift-subduction and collisional processes in the Paleoproterozoic resulting in the unified NCC and its incorporation into the supercontinent Columbia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Subduction initiation is a cornerstone in the edifice of plate tectonics. It marks the turning point of the Earth's Wilson cycles and ultimately the supercycles as well. In this paper, we explore the consequences of subduction zone invasion in the Atlantic Ocean, following recent discoveries at the SW Iberia margin. We discuss a buoyancy argument based on the premise that old oceanic lithosphere is unstable for supporting large basins, implying that it must be removed in subduction zones. As a consequence, we propose a new conceptual model in which both the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans close simultaneously, leading to the termination of the present Earth's supercycle and to the formation of a new supercontinent, which we name Aurica. Our new conceptual model also provides insights into supercontinent formation and destruction (supercycles) proposed for past geological times (e.g. Pangaea, Rodinia, Columbia, Kenorland). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In the Phanerozoic, plate tectonic processes involve the fragmentation of the continental mass, extension and spreading of oceanic domains, subduction of the oceanic lithosphere and lateral shortening that culminate with continental collision ( i . e . Wilson cycle). Unlike modern orogenic settings and despite the collection of evidence in the geological record, we lack information to identify such a sequence of events in the Precambrian. This is why it is particularly difficult to track plate tectonics back to 2.0 Ga and beyond. In this study, we aim to show that a multidisciplinary approach on a selected set of samples from a given orogeny can be used to place constraints on crustal evolution within a P-T-t-d-X space. We combine field geology, petrological observations, thermodynamic modelling (Theriak-Domino) and radiogenic (U-Pb, Lu-Hf) and stable isotopes (δ 18 O) to quantify the duration of the different steps of a Wilson cycle. For the purpose of this study, we focus on the Proterozoic Nagssugtoqidian Orogenic Belt (NOB), in the Tasiilaq area, South-East Greenland. Our study reveals that the Nagssugtoqidian Orogen was the result of a complete three stages juvenile crust production (X juv ) – recycling/reworking sequence: (I) During the 2.60–2.95 Ga period, the Neoarchean Skjoldungen Orogen remobilised basement lithologies formed at T DM 2.91 Ga with progressive increase of the discharge of reworked material (X juv from 75% to 50%; δ 18 O: 4–8.5‰). (II) After a period of crustal stabilization (2.35–2.60 Ga), discrete juvenile material inputs (δ 18 O: 5–6‰) at T DM 2.35 Ga argue for the formation of an oceanic lithosphere and seafloor spreading over a period of ~ 0.2 Ga (X juv from < 25% to 70%). Lateral shortening is set to have started at ca . 2.05 Ga with the accretion of volcanic/magmatic arcs ( i . e . Ammassalik Intrusive Complex) and by subduction of small oceanic domains (M1: 520 ± 60 °C at 6.6 ± 1.4 kbar). (III) Continental collision between the North Atlantic Craton and the Rae Craton occurred at 1.84–1.89 Ga. Crustal thickening of ~ 25 km was accompanied by regional metamorphism M2 (690 ± 20 °C at 6.25 ± 0.25 kbar) and remobilization of pre-existing supracrustal lithologies (X juv ~ 40%; δ 18 O: 5–10.5‰). Rates and durations obtained for seafloor spreading (175 ± 25 Ma), subduction (125 ± 75 Ma) and continental collision ( ca . 60 Ma) are similar to those observed in Phanerozoic Wilson Cycle but differ from what was estimated for Archean terrains. Therefore, timespans of the different steps of a Wilson cycle might have progressively changed over time as a response to the progressive cratonization of the lithosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The classical Wilson Cycle concept, describing repeated opening and closing of ocean basins, hypothesizes spontaneous conversion of passive continental margins into subduction zones. This process, however, is impeded by the high strength of passive margins, and it has never occurred in Cenozoic times. Here using thermomechanical models, we show that additional forcing, provided by mantle flow, which is induced by neighboring subduction zones and midmantle slab remnants, can convert a passive margin into a subduction zone. Models suggest that this is a long‐term process, thus explaining the lack of Cenozoic examples. We speculate that new subduction zones may form in the next few tens of millions of years along the Argentine passive margin and the U.S. East Coast. Mantle suction force can similarly trigger subduction initiation along large oceanic fracture zones. We propose that new subduction zones will preferentially originate where subduction zones were active in the past, thus explaining the remarkable colocation of subduction zones during at least the last 400 Myr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Systematic differences in mineral composition of mantle peridotites are observed in ophiolites and peridotitic bodies from the Alpine Tethys, the Pyrenean domain, the Dinarides and Hellenides, and the Iberia-Newfoundland rifted margins. These differences can be understood in the context of the evolution of rifted margins and allow the identification of 3 major mantle domains: an inherited domain, a refertilized domain and a depleted domain. Most clinopyroxene from the inherited domain equilibrated in the spinel peridotite field and are too enriched in Na 2 O and Al 2 O 3 to be residues of syn-rift melting. Clinopyroxene from the refertilized domain partially equilibrated with plagioclase and display lower Na 2 O and Al 2 O 3 , and elevated Cr 2 O 3 contents. The refertilized domain is a hybrid zone, which locally preserves remnants from the inherited domain and overlapping chemical compositions. Depleted domains with clinopyroxene similar to abyssal peridotites are rare and Nd-isotopic studies indicate that they represent ancient periods of melting unrelated to the opening of the Jurassic and Cretaceous oceanic basins of the Alpine Tethys and southern North Atlantic. In many studied sections of mantle rocks in exposed ophiolites a systematic spatial distribution of the different domains with respect to the evolution of rifted margins can be identified. This new approach integrates observations from exposed and drilled mantle rocks and proposes that the mantle lithosphere evolved and was modified during an extensional cycle from post-orogenic collapse through several periods of rifting to seafloor spreading. The defined chemical and petrological characteristics of mantle domains based on clinopyroxene and spinel compositions are compiled on present-day and paleogeographic maps of Western and Central Europe. These maps show that the observed distribution of mantle domains are linked to processes related to late post-Variscan extension, rift evolution and refertilization associated to crustal/lithospheric extension, and the development of embryonic oceanic domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rifts and passive margins often develop along old suture zones where colliding continents merged during earlier phases of the Wilson cycle. For example, the North Atlantic formed after continental break-up along sutures formed during the Caledonian and Variscan orogenies. Even though such tectonic inheritance is generally appreciated, causative physical mechanisms that affect the localization and evolution of rifts and passive margins are not well understood. We use thermo-mechanical modeling to assess the role of orogenic structures during rifting and continental breakup. Such inherited structures include: 1) Thickened crust, 2) eclogitized oceanic crust emplaced in the mantle lithosphere, and 3) mantle wedge of hydrated peridotite (serpentinite). Our models indicate that the presence of inherited structures not only defines the location of rifting upon extension, but also imposes a control on their structural and magmatic evolution. For example, rifts developing in thin initial crust can preserve large amounts of orogenic serpentinite. This facilitates rapid continental breakup, exhumation of hydrated mantle prior to the onset of magmatism. On the contrary, rifts in thicker crust develop more focused thinning in the mantle lithosphere rather than in the crust, and continental breakup is therefore preceded by magmatism. This implies that whether passive margins become magma-poor or magma-rich, respectively, is a function of pre-rift orogenic properties. The models show that structures of orogenic eclogite and hydrated mantle are partially preserved during rifting and are emplaced either at the base of the thinned crust or within the lithospheric mantle as dipping structures. The former provides an alternative interpretation of numerous observations of ‘lower crustal bodies’ which are often regarded as igneous bodies. The latter is consistent with dipping sub-Moho reflectors often observed in passive margins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present stable isotope and chemical data for 206 Precambrian bulk shale and tillite samples that were collected mostly from drillholes on all continents and span the age range from 0.5 to 3.5 Ga with a dense coverage for 2.5–2.2 Ga time interval when Earth experienced four Snowball Earth glaciations and the irreversible rise in atmospheric O 2 . We observe significant, downward shift of several ‰ and a smaller range of δ 18 O values (7 to 9‰) in shales that are associated with the Paleoproterozoic and, potentially, Neoproterozoic glaciations. The Paleoproterozoic samples consist of more than 50% mica minerals and have equal or higher chemical index of alteration than overlying and underlying formations and thus underwent equal or greater degrees of chemical weathering. Their pervasively low δ 18 O and δ D (down to − 85 ‰ ) values provide strong evidence of alteration and diagenesis in contact with ultra-low δ 18 O glacial meltwaters in lacustrine, deltaic or periglacial lake (sikussak-type) environments associated with the Paleoproterozoic glaciations. The δ D silicate values for the rest of Precambrian shales range from −75 to − 50 ‰ and are comparable to those for Phanerozoic and Archean shales. Likewise, these samples have similar ranges in δ 13 C org values (−23 to − 33 ‰ PDB) and C org content (0.0 to 10 wt%) to Phanerozoic shales. Precambrian shales have a large range of δ 18 O values comparable to that of the Phanerozoic shales in each age group and formation, suggesting similar variability in the provenance and intensity of chemical weathering, except for the earliest 3.3–3.5 Ga Archean shales, which have consistently lower δ 18 O values. Moreover, Paleoproterozoic shales that bracket in age the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) overlap in δ 18 O values. Absence of a step-wise increase in δ 18 O and δ D values suggests that despite the first-order change in the composition of the atmosphere, weathering cycle was not dramatically affected by the GOE at ∼2.4–2.3 Ga. Shales do not show comparable δ 18 O rise in the early Phanerozoic as is observed in the coeval δ 18 O trends for cherts and carbonates. There is however a sharp increase in the average δ 18 O value from the Early Archean to the Late Archean followed by a progressively decelerating increase into the Phanerozoic. This decelerating increase with time likely reflects declining contribution of mantle-extracted, normal- δ 18 O crust and lends support to crustal maturation and increasing 18 O sequestration into the crust and recycling of high- δ 18 O (and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) sedimentary rocks. This secular increase in the δ 18 O composition of the continental crust could have also had a mild effect on seawater δ 18 O composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A synthesis of the geological record of Earth's ten remaining oldest surviving gneiss complexes, each containing >3.6 Ga rocks, reveals a common history. We propose that the simplest scenario compatible with all observations is that of formation of an ancient continental mass, here named Ithaca, by 3.66 Ga from amalgamation of earlier quartzofeldspathic crust, followed by initiation of continental break-up at 3.53 Ga by rifting. Evidence for this is reconstructed from the remaining oldest rock record (only ca. 10,000 km2 globally). Dominating the surviving fragments of the proposed Itsaqia continent are 3.9 to 3.66 Ga tonalites that represent juvenile crustal additions with whole-rock initial εNd >+1 and zircon initial εHf ≈ 0. Their trace element chemistry shows that they were derived by ca. 30 percent partial melting of garnetiferous, mostly eclogitized basic rocks, leaving behind a subcrustal garnet-rich restite. The tonalites contain inclusions of mafic rocks with chemical signatures diagnostic of mantle wedge fluxing, such as enrichment in the light rare earths and depletion of Nb and Ti. We interpret that this juvenile crust formed repeatedly in arc-like constructs at convergent plate boundaries. The Acasta Gneiss of Canada is the only undisputed surviving rock record of the proposed Itsaqia continent where crust formation extends back to the Hadean. Before ca. 3.66 Ga, individual gneiss complexes show distinct chronologies of crust formation, yet despite their present-day isolation, they underwent identical 3.66 to 3.6 Ga high temperature orogenic events (Isukasian orogeny) - which we contend indicates that from 3.66 Ga these complexes had amalgamated into a single continental mass. Rare surviving 3.66 Ga high-pressure granulite rocks that underwent rapid decompression indicate tectonic crustal thickening then collapse during amalgamation. This was followed by almost 50 million years of high heat flow and lower pressure metamorphism, most probably in an extensional setting. Starting from ca. 3.53 Ga, we propose that komatiite and basalt eruption and dike emplacement marked the start of Itsaqia's dismemberment by rifting. We further speculate that the deep mantle upwelling responsible for this plume-related magmatism was triggered by either the cascade of pre-3.66 Ga sub-Itsaqia high density garnet-rich restitic subduction graveyards into the lower mantle or the thermal insulation effect of Itsaqia. This resembles the mechanisms of supercontinent breakup throughout Earth's history. Hence we propose that Wilson Cycles of continent amalgamation and breakup were already initiated by the Eoarchean, near the start of the rock record. Australia's East Pilbara region was over the top of the plume, where the thermal impact destroyed Itsaqia by melting to give rise to felsic igneous rocks coeval with komatiites. Greenland's Itsaq Gneiss Complex was peripheral to the plume, and hence was heavily diked at ca. 3.5 Ga, but was not melted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide comparison of lithospheric investigation results achieved from projects of COCORP, BIRPS, DEKORP, LITHOPROBE, ICDP, ECORS and SINOPROBE enables us to expand the classical Wilson cycle, which mainly describes evolution of ocean plates, into a complete and detailed cycle that describes generation, development and evolution of both ocean and continent plates. The expanded Wilson cycle presented in this paper introduces the evolution sequences of continental lithospheric processes by adding into the classical Wilson cycle with ocean-continent transition, continental collision and accretion, as well as continental rifting and splitting in details. These mentioned continental lithospheric processes have been presented by the author in a series of recent review papers in detail, and their summary and further deduction is presented in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In all reconstructions published during the last two decades, the Austroalpine and the correlative Southalpine basement units of the Eastern Alps were considered to represent a uniform continental block that split off from the northern Gondwana margin during Early Paleozoic times and collided with microcontinental blocks during the Variscan orogeny in the early Late Carboniferous. Afterwards, these units formed finally the outboard part of the European Variscides adjacent to the Paleotethys Ocean. The combined Austroalpine/Southalpine basement extends to the Western Carpathians, contains Ediacaran and Early Paleozoic ophiolites and magmatic arcs, Devonian passive margin successions and represents a key region for resolving the Late Neoproterozoic to Late Paleozoic tectonic evolution of the basement in the Alpine-Mediterranean Mountain belts. The Austroalpine and Southalpine basement contains well-known fossil-rich Ordovician and Silurian rift and mainly Devonian passive margin successions summarized as the Noric and Carnic domains, which were juxtaposed to amphibolite-grade metamorphic complexes during Early Carboniferous plate collision. In the metamorphic units the following main stages of tectonic evolution are: Two distinct Ediacaran to Cambrian arc systems were recognized, correlating with subduction of the Prototethys (Ran) Ocean. The continental Wechsel Arc stopped its activity during Late Cambrian times, whereas the Silvretta-Gleinalpe Arc was reactivated at the Devonian/Carboniferous boundary during subduction of the Devonian Balkan-Carpathian Ocean. The Prototethyan oceanic crust is preserved in the ophiolitic Upper Neoproterozoic to Middle Ordovician Speik Complex, that was obducted onto the Silvretta-Gleinalpe Arc during Late Ordovician to Early Silurian times. On the other hand, the Noric domain was initially part of the northern Gondwana margin and includes a virtually continuous sedimentary section ranging from the Early Ordovician to earliest Pennsylvanian. It started with an Early to Late Ordovician rift succession with mafic and acidic volcanic rocks related to rifting of parts of the Noric domain from the northern Gondwana margin forming an oceanic basin (Rheic Ocean of previous interpretations) in between and back-arc rifting is the likely setting. In both Noric and Carnic domains, Silurian strata were deposited during a tectonically quiet period followed by onset of a second rifting period during Late Silurian times, which resulted in deposition of thick Devonian carbonates heralding the opening of the Balkan-Carpathian Ocean and separation of the Paleo-Adria microcontinent from Gondwana. Late Devonian–Carboniferous plate convergence led to subduction of this oceanic rift followed by subduction of the Paleo-Adria margin underneath the accreted Variscan convergence belt, collision and Late Carboniferous intramontane molasse deposition. However, new data argues that a third ophiolitic belt, the Plankogel ophiolitic mélange, which formed as part of the Paleotethys Ocean during the Devonian and was reactivated as trench during initial consumption of the Paleotethys Ocean during Late Permian–Triassic times. The Middle-Late Triassic plutonic and volcanic rocks of the Southern Alps are considered, in this preliminary model, to represent the magmatic arc associated with Paleotethys subduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Anarak area belongs to an ophiolitic belt along the northern border of the Central-East Iranian Microcontinent, and is thought to contain fragments of the former Paleotethys and Neotethys oceans. A wide range of meta-igneous rocks from the Late Paleozoic to Triassic Anarak Metamorphic Complex (AMC) and nearby Meraji area have been studied to constrain the origins and modes of emplacement of oceanic remnants in Central Iran. Our samples occur as layers and lenses embedded in extensive sequences of deformed meta-sediments and smaller bodies of serpentinized ultramafic rocks. Petrographical and geochemical data combined with field and satellite observations allow recognition of seven types of meta-igneous rocks preserved from low grade to blueschist facies conditions. Their origins based on relative abundances of immobile trace elements include subduction zone, mid-ocean ridge, ocean intraplate, and continental rift settings. These data and existing geochronological constraints show the AMC formed an accretionary complex formed/exhumed incrementally during the Carboniferous, Permo-triassic and Triassic. Igneous rocks from Meraji formed in the Early Devonian due to opening of the Paleotethys, and belong to a rift sequence extending over 300km along the edge of the Central-East Iranian Microcontinent. The AMC and nearby rock associations record the evolution of the Paleotethys during a complete Wilson Cycle between ca. 450 and 225Ma, with implications for: (1) continental rifting; (2) ocean opening; (3) subduction initiation; (4) ocean intraplate and continued mid-ocean volcanism; (5) ridge subduction; and (6) final closure of the ocean during continent–continent collision. Alternate interpretations of the Anarak metabasites are possible, but require radical departures from the widely accepted model for tectonic evolution of the Paleotethys, with the existence of Paleotethyan backarc basin(s) and Permian or earlier collision of continental blocks in Central Iran. In any case, our results show accretionary complexes preserved along suture zones contain an important record of the evolution of oceanic crust from ancient ocean basins. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Growth lines in the mineralized tissues of living and fossil organisms often exhibit regular patterns that record daily, monthly, or annual cycles. Growth laminations in fossil corals and other marine invertebrates indicate long-term deceleration of the Earth’s rotation, probably largely due to tidal friction, resulting in a decline in the number of days per year over the Earth’s history. Fossils suggest the rate of decline has not been uniform, with the trend between the late Carboniferous and Cretaceous in particular departing from preceding and subsequent periods. However, insufficient data have obscured the nature and cause of the apparent halt in despinning within this time interval. Here we present new fossil geochronometer data that reveal a sustained acceleration in the Earth’s rotation in the early Mesozoic Era, lasting about 90 million years and producing a decrease in the length of day (LOD) at an average rate of about 3 ms/cy. The coincidence of this acceleration with certain geophysical events including the final assembly of Pangaea and a change in the intensity and stability of the geomagnetic field strongly suggests that its cause is rooted in the deep interior of the Earth. A similar explanation has been proposed for observed decadal variations in the Earth’s rotation. Our results suggest large-scale linkage of rotational variation, tectonics, and the geomagnetic field to core–mantle boundary (CMB) dynamics. Furthermore the newly identified acceleration in the Earth’s rotation which began at the end of the Paleozoic, and the geophysical factors that are associated with it, can ultimately bear on the causal mechanisms behind the Permo-Triassic mass extinction. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The periodic assembly and dispersal of supercontinents through the history of the Earth had considerable impact on mantle dynamics and surface processes. Here we synthesize some of the conceptual models on supercontinent amalgamation and disruption and combine it with recent information from numerical studies to provide a unified approach in understanding Wilson Cycle and supercontinent cycle. Plate tectonic models predict that superdownwelling along multiple subduction zones might provide an effective mechanism to pull together dispersed continental fragments into a closely packed assembly. The recycled subducted material that accumulates at the mantle transition zone and sinks down into the core–mantle boundary (CMB) provides the potential fuel for the generation of plumes and superplumes which ultimately fragment the supercontinent. Geological evidence related to the disruption of two major supercontinents (Columbia and Gondwana) attest to the involvement of plumes. The re-assembly of dispersed continental fragments after the breakup of a supercontinent occurs through complex processes involving ‘introversion’, ‘extroversion’ or a combination of both, with the closure of the intervening ocean occurring through Pacific-type or Atlantic-type processes. The timescales of the assembly and dispersion of supercontinents have varied through the Earth history, and appear to be closely linked with the processes and duration of superplume genesis. The widely held view that the volume of continental crust has increased over time has been challenged in recent works and current models propose that plate tectonics creates and destroys Earth''s continental crust with more crust being destroyed than created. The creation–destruction balance changes over a supercontinent cycle, with a higher crustal growth through magmatic influx during supercontinent break-up as compared to the tectonic erosion and sediment-trapped subduction in convergent margins associated with supercontinent assembly which erodes the continental crust. Ongoing subduction erosion also occurs at the leading edges of dispersing plates, which also contributes to crustal destruction, although this is only a temporary process. The previous numerical studies of mantle convection suggested that there is a significant feedback between mantle convection and continental drift. The process of assembly of supercontinents induces a temperature increase beneath the supercontinent due to the thermal insulating effect. Such thermal insulation leads to a planetary-scale reorganization of mantle flow and results in longest-wavelength thermal heterogeneity in the mantle, i.e., degree-one convection in three-dimensional spherical geometry. The formation of degree-one convection seems to be integral to the emergence of periodic supercontinent cycles. The rifting and breakup of supercontinental assemblies may be caused by either tensional stress due to the thermal insulating effect, or large-scale partial melting resulting from the flow reorganization and consequent temperature increase beneath the supercontinent. Supercontinent breakup has also been correlated with the temperature increase due to upwelling plumes originating from the deeper lower mantle or CMB as a return flow of plate subduction occurring at supercontinental margins. The active mantle plumes from the CMB may disrupt the regularity of supercontinent cycles. Two end-member scenarios can be envisaged for the mantle convection cycle. One is that mantle convection with dispersing continental blocks has a short-wavelength structure, or close to degree-two structure as the present Earth, and when a supercontinent forms, mantle convection evolves into degree-one structure. Another is that mantle convection with dispersing continental blocks has a degree-one structure, and when a supercontinent forms, mantle convection evolves into degree-two structure. In the case of the former model, it would take longer time to form a supercontinent, because continental blocks would be trapped by different downwellings thus inhibiting collision. Although most of the numerical studies have assumed the continent/supercontinent to be rigid or nondeformable body mainly because of numerical limitations as well as a simplification of models, a more recent numerical study allows the modeling of mobile, deformable continents, including oceanic plates, and successfully reproduces continental drift similar to the processes and timescales envisaged in Wilson Cycle. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A sequence of c. 3.2Ga low-grade sedimentary rocks, bimodal volcanic rocks, and subvolcanic layered mafic-ultramafic sills and dykes occur in greenstone belts that flank the margins of the 3.51–3.24Ga East Pilbara Terrane of the Pilbara Craton, Western Australia. U–Pb SHRIMP zircon data and Sm–Nd model age data suggest that these rocks represent juvenile addition of material to the margins of the craton during a period of major extension, accompanied by the local emplacement of granitic rocks. This extensional event is also represented in adjacent terranes, by thick basalt flows with c. 3.2Ga zircon and Sm–Nd model ages, and by granitic rocks. Based on the available age data, geochemistry of basaltic rocks, and the distribution of this event in space and time within the craton, we interpret the c. 3.2Ga rocks to reflect widespread rifting of the protocraton and associated thinning of the lithosphere. This event resulted in separation of the flanking Kurrana and Karratha Terranes from their parent East Pilbara Terrane, which represents the ancient nucleus of the craton. These terranes were then reassembled during subsequent accretion at 3.07–2.905Ga. Combined, the data suggest the preservation of a Mesoarchean Wilson cycle in the Pilbara Craton. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Monsoon is now considered as a global system rather than regional phenomena only. For over 300 years, monsoon has been viewed as a gigantic land-sea breeze, but now satellite and conventional observations support an alternative hypothesis which considers monsoon as a manifestation of seasonal migration of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and, hence, a climate system of the global scale. As a low-latitude climate system, monsoon exists over all continents but Antarctica, and through all the geological history at least since the Phenorozoic. The time is ripe for systematical studies of monsoon variations in space and time. As evidenced by the geological records, the global monsoon is controlled by the Wilson cycle on the tectonic time scale (106-108 a). A "Mega-continent" produces "Mega-monsoon", and its breakdown leads to weakening of the monsoon intensity. On the time scales of 104-105 a, the global monsoon displays the precessional cycles of ∼20 ka and eccentricity cycles of 100- and 400-ka, i.e. the orbital cycles. On the time scales of 103 a and below, the global monsoon intensity is modulated by solar cycles and other factors. The cyclicity of global monsoon represents one of the fundamental factors responsible for variations in the Earth surface system as well as for the environmental changes of the human society. The 400-ka long eccentricity cycles of the global monsoon is likened to "heartbeat" of the Earth system, and the precession cycle of the global monsoon was responsible for the collapse of several Asian and African ancient cultures at ∼4000 years ago, whereas the Solar cycles led to the demise of the Maya civilization about a thousand years ago. Therefore, paleoclimatology should be focused not only on the high-latitude processes centered at ice cap variations, but also on the low-latitude processes such as monsoons, as the latter are much more common in the geological history compared to the glaciations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fault reactivation is a process that has long been described in nature and modelled in the laboratory. Although many plate boundaries worldwide have undergone successive deformation events during one or more Wilson cycles, most often the influence of fault reactivation on mainly the last deformation event can be comprehensively estimated. The northern South China Sea area has undergone, in the last 60 Myr, an entire Wilson cycle associated with the opening and the ongoing closure of the South China Sea oceanic basin. The continental basement that underwent extension during the opening of the South China Sea was associated with at least two, well-defined, systems of faults inherited from the Cretaceous tectonic evolution of the area. Also, the ongoing closure of the northern South China Sea is partial as convergence is highly oblique and collision is very localized and confined to the Taiwan mountain belt, while in most of the Eurasian rifted margin the extensional structures related to the opening of the South China Sea are not yet overprinted. Both these conditions make the northern South China Sea area an ideal one for investigating the significance of fault reactivation throughout the Wilson cycle. In this article, we first review the tectonic history of the northern South China Sea area in the last 60 Myr focusing on how it is reflected on the northern South China Sea rifted margin and the Taiwan mountain belt. We then review the influence that fault reactivation has exerted in these two areas. We found that fault reactivation had a crucial role in accommodating deformation during both the divergence and convergence episodes of the Wilson cycle, and that the degree to which faults are reactivated as well as the style of fault reactivation can be shown to be associated with the angle that inherited faults form with the extension and shortening directions, respectively. Reactivation of faults involving significant remobilisation of basement rocks seems to have been promoted for faults that were forming a high angle with the extension and shortening directions. These results highlight not only the continuous significance that fault reactivation can have during the Wilson cycle undergone at a plate boundary, but also how the first-order, underlying, geometric controls on fault reactivation can display consistency throughout the cycle itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]