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Middle school students with social and behavioral concerns need additional support. The current study investigated the effects of Class-Wide Function-related intervention teams adapted for middle school contexts (CW-FIT MS) and self-management (SM) in a sixth-grade reading class. CW-FIT MS was implemented, subsequently, for students with data indicating additional support was needed, and a self-management component was added to intensify the intervention (CW-FIT MS w/ SM). A single-subject multiple baseline design was implemented across four student participants, and the on-task student behavior as well as the teacher-student relationship were examined to assess the effects of the intervention. Results indicated improved on-task behavior for three of four students with the implementation of the self-management intervention, demonstrating promising maintenance effects. Preliminary data showed an overall improvement in the teacher-student relationship. Both teachers and students reported positive perceptions about the intervention, consistent with earlier findings in CW-FIT MS studies. Limitations and areas for future research are addressed. [For the Grantee Submission, see ED616821.]

Teacher-directed self-monitoring (TD-SM) is often recommended to special education teachers as a simple and efficient method for improving the implementation fidelity of evidence-based practices in the classroom and strengthening outcomes for students. This systematic review and outcomes analysis investigated the conditions and intervention packages under which TD-SM can be effective at improving implementation fidelity as well as the associated effects of TD-SM on student outcomes targeted by the practices monitored for fidelity. Results indicate TD-SM demonstrated generally positive outcomes when used to improve the fidelity of instructional methods with varying intervention packages. Gains in instructional method implementation fidelity sometimes resulted in gains in student outcomes. The use of TD-SM to improve the fidelity of behavioral interventions resulted in varied fidelity and student outcomes, despite the use of consistent intervention packages. Implications for future research and practical use of TD-SM are discussed.

Many teachers resort to using reprimands in attempts to stop disruptive student behavior, particularly by students with emotional or behavioral problems, although this may not be effective. This study examined short-term longitudinal data on teacher reprimands of 149 teachers in 19 different elementary schools across three states, as well as disruptive behavior and classroom engagement of 311 students considered at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. A cross-lag analysis showed that teacher reprimands did not decrease students' future disruptive behavior or increase their engagement or vice versa. While teacher reprimands may suppress misbehavior momentarily, they do not appear to be effective in decreasing students' disruptive behavior or increasing their engagement over time. Limitations and implications are discussed. [For the Grantee Submission, see ED606563.]

Self-monitoring is a promising evidence-based intervention for students who benefit from supplemental supports to stay on-task during academic periods. I-Connect, a technology-based self-monitoring intervention with a substantial body of research, allows students to discretely recognize and record their behavior on a mobile or desktop app at scheduled intervals, to improve positive behavior and increase inclusion opportunities. This meta-analytic review examined the effect of I-Connect on the on-task behavior of students with or at risk for disabilities to determine the omnibus effect of using I-Connect across students and intervention packages. Students received 20-45 minutes of training before using I-Connect and most students monitored their on-task behavior every 30-seconds during 10-minute monitoring sessions. Under these conditions, I-Connect was found to demonstrate strong functional relations, an abrupt increase in on-task behavior and consistently positive parametric effects across all 14 elementary and secondary students receiving special education.

Middle school is a cornerstone for success in high school. However, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement of adolescents often decline as they transition from elementary to middle school, resulting in lower school grades and more challenging behaviors, especially for adolescents with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT), a classroom management program based on school-wide positive behavior support, has been found to be effective in elementary general and special education classrooms. The present study, a randomized control trial of CW-FIT for middle schools (CW-FIT MS), evaluated the effects on class-wide on-task behavior, as well as the on-task and disruptive behaviors of students identified as at risk for EBD. Participants included 629 students (70 identified as at risk) enrolled in 28 middle school classrooms across five Title I schools representing diverse geographic, ethnic, and socioeconomic areas. The study also addressed research questions regarding effects of the intervention on teacher praise and reprimands, as well as teacher and student social validity. Results suggested that CW-FIT MS was associated with improvements in class-wide and at-risk student on-task behavior, student disruptions, teacher praise, and teacher reprimand rates. Both teachers and students reported the intervention to be socially valid. Study limitations and areas for future research are addressed.

The paraeducator workforce as well as the breadth of their responsibilities to serve students in special education has increased considerably in public schools. Unfortunately, research to identify the most effective methods for training paraeducators has not kept pace. Addressing this dynamic, through an implementation science framework, requires a better understanding of contextual factors. In this study, focus groups (FGs) with paraeducators and teachers were conducted to examine (a) responsibilities, training needs, and related issues of paraprofessionals; (b) training needs and related issues of teachers as supervisors of paraeducators; and (c) factors that support or impede special educators' self-efficacy and their perception of competence of their colleagues. Four FGs, homogeneous based on role and assignment (mild vs. moderate-to-severe disabilities), were conducted utilizing a semistructured interview protocol. Qualitative content analysis revealed important challenges and training-related deficiencies experienced by both teachers and paraeducators, as well as suggestions for addressing these issues.

Despite a high dropout rate and poor educational and posteducational outcomes, limited evidence-based practices have been validated with students at the high school level who have emotional and behavioral problems. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a multitreatment, assessment-based intervention package. Participants were 647 high-school-age students with both emotional/behavioral problems and impairment in school functioning. Using a randomized controlled trial, the intervention group showed significantly fewer disruptions, measured using direct observation. No significant differences were found in directly observed engagement or on standardized measures. However, in general, interventions were implemented with low frequency. Dosage effects were examined for classroom interventions and a social skills intervention (Interpersonal Skills Group [ISG]). Results indicated a dosage effect for ISG, reflected in standardized measures. Although implementation was low, teachers and staff rated practices that they implemented highly favorably.

Middle school teachers frequently struggle with positively managing student behavior. However, praise-to-reprimand ratios (PRRs) have received little research attention. PRRs studied in elementary school have been positively associated with improvements in on-task and prosocial behavior, but limited research has been conducted on optimal PRRs in middle schools. We conducted this study in the context of a randomized control trial of Class-wide Function-related Intervention Teams Middle School (CW-FIT MS) to isolate the effects of one of the main components of the intervention, PRR. After controlling for the intervention, we examined the effects of PRRs in 28 U.S. middle school classrooms on (a) class-wide on-task behavior, (b) on-task behavior of students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), and (c) disruptive behavior of students at risk for EBD. Multivariate regressions revealed a statistically significant linear relationship between middle school PRRs and the variables of interest: As PRRs increased, on-task behavior of the entire class improved, on-task behavior and grades of students at risk for EBD increased, and disruptive behavior of students at risk for EBD decreased. We discuss the implications of our findings and suggest areas for future research. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED616782.]

Disruptive student behavior is a significant challenge in schools and a predictor of student failure. Effective classroom management is a crucial skill that middle level teachers must acquire to foster student engagement and learning. This qualitative study explored the experiences and perceptions of 35 middle level teachers in both general education and special education settings regarding effective classroom management techniques. Eight focus group interviews were conducted with 25 general education teachers and 10 special education teachers at one of five middle schools in Kansas, Missouri, or Utah. Focus group transcripts were analyzed using iterative qualitative content analysis to identify themes and subthemes. Findings revealed that effective classroom management includes teachers' use of appropriate positive and negative reinforcement, student buy-in to reward systems, positive immediate feedback to students, teachers' consistent follow-through with consequences, and positive teacher-student relationships. We also report similarities and differences between middle level general education and special education teachers' perceptions. Limitations and areas for future research are addressed.

Due to a shortage of special education teachers and an increase in the number of students with disabilities, the use of paraeducators is common. Paraeducators frequently provide instruction, under the direction of a teacher, to support elementary students with disabilities in elementary school classrooms. However, if and how paraeducators implement foundational instructional strategies is largely unknown (e.g., opportunities to respond [OTR], praise). Likewise, how students with disabilities respond to paraeducators' instructional behaviors is also unknown. With decades of evidence indicating that contextual factors (e.g., group size, activity type) influence interactions between educators and students, we relied on ecobehavioral assessment to measure paraeducators' use of core instructional strategies and students' response in the natural context. Our results indicated a correlation between higher rates of paraeducator-delivered OTRs and praise statements and increased student engagement. Of concern, paraeducators infrequently used core, evidence-based instructional approaches, and students often were not engaged. Findings suggest increased student engagement may depend on professional development efforts aimed at improving paraeducators' implementation of these essential core strategies.

Classroom management is commonly challenging in middle schools. Class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT) is a multitiered intervention designed to decrease problem behaviors at the classroom level. It is comprises evidence-based practices such as teaching classroom expectations, increasing teacher praise, and using positive reinforcement in an interdependent group contingency. CW-FIT has shown promise in a variety of school settings, but it has not been tested in middle school art classrooms. This initial investigation examined the effects of CW-FIT using a single-subject ABAB design in two middle school art classrooms. Results indicated that class on-task behavior increased by more than 25% and teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios more than doubled during CW-FIT implementation compared with baseline levels. Results also indicated that on-task behavior for students identified as at risk for behavioral disorders improved by more than 18% during the intervention. Teachers and students found the intervention to be socially valid. Resulting implications were promising for using CW-FIT in other middle school art classrooms.

The Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition (BASC-3) Behavioral and Emotional Screening System Teacher Form (BESS) is a universal screening measure designed to identify social, emotional, and behavioral risks in students. A series of confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted to examine the extent to which the developer-proposed factor model fits the BASC-3 BESS data within an elementary K-5 sample of students (N = 1472). Results suggested a higher-order factor structure, which was specified in accordance with developer recommendations, provided acceptable fit to the BASC-3 BESS data. Measurement invariance of the factor structure across student age levels was then examined via a series of multi-group CFA models. Introduction Multi-group CFA findings supported the configural, metric, and scalar invariance of the factor structure across age levels. Practical implications for educators and school psychologists interested in universal screening and directions for future research are discussed.

Transitioning from elementary to middle school is a time of particular vulnerability for students with behavior problems. This study examined the effects of class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT) in three middle school classrooms to determine whether this multitiered intervention could help teachers proactively manage student behavior. With a focus on teaching classroom expectations, delivering behavior-specific praise, and providing differential reinforcement within an interdependent group contingency, CW-FIT is designed to teach functional replacement behaviors that support students' academic engagement. Intervention effects were assessed with seventh- and eighth-grade students from diverse backgrounds. Results, evaluated using a single-subject withdrawal (ABAB) design, indicated improved rates of on-task behavior at both class-wide and individual student levels, with corresponding increases in teacher praise and decreases in teacher reprimands. The positive way in which participants viewed CW-FIT implementation and its accompanying effects on student behaviors was consistent with earlier findings in elementary schools. Study limitations and areas for future research are discussed. [For the corresponding grantee submission, see ED616822.]

Middle school is a cornerstone for success in high school. However, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement of adolescents often decline as they transition from elementary to middle school, resulting in lower school grades and more challenging behaviors, especially for adolescents with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT), a classroom management program based on school-wide positive behavior support, has been found to be effective in elementary general and special education classrooms. The present study, a randomized control trial of CW-FIT for middle schools (CW-FIT MS), evaluated the effects on class-wide on-task behavior, as well as the on-task and disruptive behaviors of students identified as at risk for EBD. Participants included 629 students (70 identified as at risk) enrolled in 28 middle school classrooms across five Title I schools representing diverse geographic, ethnic, and socioeconomic areas. The study also addressed research questions regarding effects of the intervention on teacher praise and reprimands, as well as teacher and student social validity. Results suggested that CW-FIT MS was associated with improvements in class-wide and at-risk student on-task behavior, student disruptions, teacher praise, and teacher reprimand rates. Both teachers and students reported the intervention to be socially valid. Study limitations and areas for future research are addressed., Author(s): Howard P. Wills [sup.1], Paul Caldarella [sup.2], Leslie Williams [sup.3], Kandace Fleming [sup.4], Pei-Yu Chen [sup.5] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.266515.3, 0000 0001 2106 0692, Juniper Gardens Children's Project, University [...]

In the United States, many teachers feel underprepared to manage student classroom behavior positively. Such management is crucial for students to learn effectively, especially those with or at risk of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Although increasing teacher praise and decreasing teacher reprimands may be research-based practices, more empirical evidence is required for them to be considered evidence based. The current study of 65 elementary school teachers and 239 students across three states contrasted the effects of these teacher behaviors on engagement and disruptions of students who were and were not at risk of EBD. Using structural equation modeling, we examined how the engagement and disruptions of students at risk were more sensitive to teacher praise and reprimand than the behavior of their typical peers. These results support the literature and invite teachers to consider that who they praise and reprimand is just as important as how.

This study investigated the effects of varying opportunities to respond when using a behavior management program with three elementary school students with developmental disabilities in a small group special education setting. These students exhibited both academic and behavioral difficulties. With the implementation of Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) with low opportunities to respond (OTR), students increased their active engagement and correct responses, as well as decreased their disruptive behaviors. When CW-FIT with high OTR was implemented, students showed an even greater improvement than CW-FIT with low OTR. Higher rates of OTR resulted in higher levels of active engagement and correct responses and decreases in disruptive behavior for all three students. These results indicate that CW-FIT in combination with high OTR can help elementary school teachers manage students' behavior and increase students' correct responding when implemented in a small group special education setting.

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) often receive low rates of teacher praise and high rates of teacher reprimands, though they may respond more positively to praise and more negatively to reprimands than their typically developing peers. Teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios (PRRs) are associated with increased student engagement, but more research is necessary to further explore how these ratios affect student behavior, particularly for students with or at risk for EBD. Commonly 3:1 or 4:1 is recommended as a desirable PRR, but students with EBD may need higher ratios to improve their classroom behavior. In our study of 540 students and 149 teachers, we found that as teacher PRR increased the engagement of at-risk students increased, though engagement for typically developing peers did not. A PRR of approximately 9:1 was needed for students at risk for EBD to approximate the engagement levels of their typically developing peers. No effect of PRR on disruption rates was found for either student category.

During the transition from elementary to middle school, adolescents may become increasingly vulnerable for emotional and behavioral problems. Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams for middle school (CW-FIT MS), the independent variable examined in this study, was developed to improve teaching and learning by fostering student engagement. The study's purpose was to examine the feasibility and effects of CW-FIT MS Tier 1 implementation across nine middle school classes using a single-subject ABAB withdrawal design. Participants were 234 students in grades 6-8, including 23 identified as at risk for emotional behavioral disorders. Results of CW-FIT MS Tier 1 implementation showed significant improvement in on-task behavior for groups as well as individual target students, increased teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios, and decreased target student disruptions. Outcomes of social validity surveys were consistent with earlier studies. Study findings extend previous results by demonstrating positive intervention effects in novel settings with a greater number of participants. Study limitations and areas for future research are discussed. [This paper was published in "Research in Middle Level Education" v42 n7 p1-15 2019 (EJ1226018).]

Disruptive student behavior, a common concern for teachers, presents particular challenges for those who teach art. Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) is a multitiered intervention for implementing effective classroom management strategies aligned with schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports. CW-FIT has proven effective in general education classrooms, with its emphasis on social skills instruction, teacher praise, group contingency, and positive reinforcement. This first study of CW-FIT implementation in elementary art classrooms examined its effects on student on-task behavior. The researchers used a single-subject (AB) design in one classroom and reversal designs (ABAB) in two classrooms. Results indicated student on-task behavior significantly improved, and the teacher was able to implement CW-FIT with fidelity as well as increase her praise-to-reprimand ratios. Both teacher and students found the intervention to be socially valid. Study implications and limitations are discussed.

Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) is a classroom management system using a group contingency involving direct teaching of classroom rules/skills, differential reinforcement of appropriate behaviors, and minimized social attention to inappropriate behaviors. We investigated elementary school teachers' implementation of CW-FIT with minimal reliance on external researcher support. Nine teachers and their classes participated. Ten students nominated as at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) were individually monitored. Effects were examined using a single case reversal design. During CW-FIT implementation teachers' use of praise increased and reprimands decreased, on-task behavior increased in all classrooms, and seven of the at-risk students also showed decreased disruptive behaviors. Teacher and student social validity ratings indicated support of and satisfaction with the program. Implications for classroom practice are discussed.

Middle level school teachers commonly measure and monitor students' academic performance, but such is not the case for students' classroom behavior. This is unfortunate, given the rise in students' classroom behavior problems in middle school, especially for students who experience emotional or behavioral disorders. The Classroom Performance Survey (CPS) is a brief behavior rating scale that has shown promise for use in elementary school settings, but no studies have investigated the psychometric properties of this measure in middle level schools. In the present study, 103 middle grades students at-risk for emotional or behavioral disorders were rated by their classroom teachers using the CPS. We conducted a psychometric evaluation using a multi-step analytic strategy, including confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis. Results showed that the CPS displayed evidence of a reliable two-factor structure (Academic Competence and Interpersonal Competence), predictive validity with academic outcomes (percent of assignments completed and student grades), convergent validity with established behavioral and observational measures, and sensitivity to change over time. Study results suggest positive implications for using the CPS as part of behavior intervention and monitoring efforts in middle level schools.

This study examined the efficacy of an intervention package consisting of small group instruction, online instructional modules, and telecoaching to increase planning skills of eight young adults (ages 17-26) with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other related neurological disorders. Telecoaching sessions used existing video conference platforms (e.g., FaceTime, Google Hangouts, Skype, Zoom) with young adults as the direct recipients of the coaching. The primary dependent variable was number of planning steps described on fictional vignettes, and a supplementary dependent variable was self-reported participation in weekly social activities. A multiple baseline across participants design with participants assigned to three cohorts was utilized. Results indicated all participants increased knowledge of steps required to plan activities. However, implementation of the planned activities varied with minimal gains demonstrated by five of the eight participants. Implications for practice and research related to technology-based interventions to increase social engagement of young adults with ASD is discussed.

The current study examined the effects of the Class-wide Function-related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT), a class-wide group contingency, on the on-task behavior of all students in a first grade class and the on-task and disruptive behavior of three target students within that class who were nominated by their teacher through a behavioral screening. The classroom teacher used a systematic instruction model (i.e., direct instruction, model, and role-play) to teach three behavioral skills, including (a) gaining the teacher's attention appropriately, (b) following directions, and (c) ignoring inappropriate peer behavior. These skills were reinforced through use of an interdependent group contingency, the CW-FIT program, incorporating class teams, awarding points, and rewards for meeting point goals. The effects of the intervention on target student and class behavior were evaluated in a reversal design. Results showed the CW-FIT program was effective in increasing the on-task behavior of the class and target students. A reduction in disruptive behavior was also seen for each target student during intervention. Students and teacher reported a high degree of satisfaction with the intervention.

Classroom management is a common concern for teachers. Music teachers in particular experience unique behavior challenges because of large class sizes, uncommon pacing requirements, and performance-based outcomes. Positive behavior support is an evidence-based framework for preventing or eliminating challenging behaviors by teaching and reinforcing appropriate social skills. Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT), a specific positive behavior support intervention involving social skills instruction, positive reinforcement, and group contingencies, has proven effective in elementary schools but has not been evaluated specifically in music classrooms. The present study sought to investigate the effectiveness of CW-FIT in increasing on-task behavior and teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios in a sixth-grade music classroom. A single-subject reversal (ABAB) design was used. Results indicated that student on-task behavior increased when CW-FIT was implemented. Teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios also improved. Results suggest the teacher and the students found CW-FIT valuable and enjoyable. Study limitations and implications are addressed.

Numerous well-validated academic progress monitoring tools are used in schools, but there are fewer behavioral progress monitoring measures available. Some brief behavior rating scales have been shown to be effective in monitoring students' progress, but most focus only on students' social skills and do not address critical academic-related behaviors. We conducted a quasi-replication of a study by Brady, Evans, Berlin, Bunford, and Kern examining the "Classroom Performance Survey" (CPS) by using a multi-step analytic strategy, including confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis. Over a period of 3 years, 160 elementary schoolteachers in 19 schools across three states completed a modified CPS on 356 elementary students identified as at-risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. The modified CPS was found to be comprised of two factors (Academic Competence and Interpersonal Competence) and showed evidence of reliability and validity. These results suggest that the CPS shows promise as a brief behavior rating scale for progress monitoring in elementary schools.

Class-wide interventions have strong empirical support for improving behavior in general education classes but are rarely tested in special education classes. The present study examined the effects of the Class-wide Function-related Intervention Team (CW-FIT) program, a group contingency intervention, on the on-task behavior of six elementary school children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) in a self-contained, urban classroom. Using an ABAB design with brief withdrawals of the independent variable, the class-wide component of CW-FIT was implemented during a 20-min reading and spelling period 1-3 days per week. Procedures included teaching attending skills, setting a goal and awarding points for appropriate behavior, and providing differential reinforcement. Implementing the class-wide component of CW-FIT resulted in increased on-task behavior for students with EBD, with concomitant increases in teacher praise and reductions in teacher reprimands.

This single case design study evaluated the effects of a video modeling (VM) intervention on the customer service skills of five young adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Verbalization of greeting, service, and closing phrases contextualized to community employment settings were the target behaviors. A systematic approach to visual analysis indicated the presence of a functional relation for all participants. Coworkers, job coaches, and supervisors successfully applied the VM intervention during the generalization condition. Maintenance probes conducted at 2 and 4 weeks indicated that most customer service skills were maintained. Results indicated VM was also effective in enhancing the quality of interactions with customers. Implications for research and practice related to the competitive employment of young adults with ASD are discussed.

This study investigated the effects of a Tier 3 peer-matching self-management intervention on two elementary school students who had previously been less responsive to Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions. The Tier 3 self-management intervention, which was implemented in the general education classrooms, included daily electronic communication between the teachers and the children's parents. Results indicated that this intervention effectively reduced disruptive behaviors and increased total engagement when implemented with integrity; without integrity results were variable.

Middle school special education teachers often express concern about challenging student behavior. Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT), a behavior management program based on school-wide positive behavior support, have been effective in elementary general education classrooms. The present study, the first to apply it in a middle school special education setting, used an ABAC design to examine effects on student on-task behavior and teacher praise rates in a self-contained special education classroom for students with severe disabilities and their typically developing peer tutors. Results suggested that CW-FIT Tier 1 is associated with improvements in student on-task behavior and teacher praise rates, especially when peer tutors are included in the intervention and when the timer is silent. Both teachers and students reported the intervention to be socially valid. Study limitations and areas for future research are addressed.